Candy in Of Mice and Men Essay

Candy’s name has many connotations and many of which gives us an insight to the inequalities against old people in American society. Candy on the very simple and literal level means â€Å"sweet and pleasing† and shows that Candy is a very sweet, nice old man. Another connotation that springs to mind is that Candy, the old swamper, is a very friendly, honest and open man with whom you can talk about everything. This is underlined by his name: â€Å"candid† means â€Å"not hiding one†²s thoughts, frank and honest†. But Candy’s name has also an even deeper meaning or connotation which highlights an inequality in society in that his name- Candy- is a metaphor as much like his name, candy or sweets have a sell-by date. This portrays that in American society all workers are expendable or indispensable and after a given time they are rendered as useless. The killing of Candy’s dog is a key metaphor in the book as Candy the old handyman, aging and left with only one hand as the result of an accident, worries that the boss will soon declare him useless and demand that he leave the ranch. Even though we learn that Candy’s dog was once an impressive sheep herder, past accomplishments and current emotional ties matter little, as Carlson makes clear when he insists that Candy let him put the dog out of its misery, we see this in the line: â€Å"He ain’t no good to you†¦why’n’t you shoot him Candy?† Candy’s dog serves as a harsh reminder in American society of the fate that awaits anyone who outlives their usefulness. This situation also portrays an inequality in society in that society views on their age and incapabilities rather than their values and past achievements. Steinbeck throughout the novel uses Candy to portray to the reader the inequality of ageism in American in society in 1920. Through his descriptions of Candy’s working and living conditions, Steinbeck highlights the frequent use of discrimination and ageism. Candy is an â€Å"old swamper†, who lives in a â€Å"bunkhouse†. His possessions are a â€Å"bunk† and â€Å"an apple box†. Theoretically, one should treat aged people respectfully. In our society, pensioners have a better life than employees. However, Candy is a â€Å"swamper† and he is not treated fairly. The repetition of â€Å"old† in Candy’s description also emphasises that his appearance and inability to work because of his age was what many people judged Candy by. Candy because of his age and disability is an outcast on this ranch we see this when he does not go into town with the rest of the ranchworkers which highlights how excluded Candy is. The exclusion of Candy is another indication of the inequalities in American society in that it was very ageist and discriminative. In our society pensioners are treated with a lot more respect that the average middle-aged working class citizen but we learn from this novel that society in 1920 was juxtaposed to this. Candy did not get pension or benefits for the government; the only sum of money he received was the inadequate sum of $250 for the loss of his hand, which contributed massively to his uslessness. This is an indication in of an inequality in society as old people were not even valued by the government as there were no pensions. Old people were poor in the 1920’s because they were seen as useless by the average people and the government alike. This indicates that American society greatly believed in the term ‘survival of the fittest’ and believed people should ‘work until they dropped.’ After Lennie leaves the ranch Candy replaces his role and becomes dependent on George: â€Å"What we gonna do now George? What we gonna do now?† Also throughout the novel we notice Candy’s vulnerability in the ranch especially when it comes to the boss. For example we see in the line: â€Å"You won’t tell Curley nothing I said?† that Candy is in fact frightened of the boss and his son and knows that they have the power to get rid of Candy from the ranch and therefore would leave him with nothing. Candy is a passive man, unable to take any independent action. Indeed, his one major act in the book – when he offers Lennie and George money in order to buy a piece of land with them – is a means by which he can become dependent on them: â€Å"An’ I’ll make a will an’ leave my share to you guys in case I kick off† This indicates an inequality in that it shows how vulnerable old people were in American society especially once they got past the stage of being able to work as no one seen them as any use. View as multi-pages

Gas Diffusion Essay

OBJECTIVES: Determine the gas diffusion coefficient of acetone using the established Winkelmann’s method KEYWORDS Diffusivity, Gas Diffusion Coefficient, Winkelmann’s method OVERVIEW The knowledge of physical and chemical properties of certain materials is important because very often process engineering deal with the transformation and distribution of these materials in bulk. One such property is diffusivity. Mass transfer by diffusion takes place when there is a concentration gradient of the diffusing component. Naturally, the diffusion in gas phase is much faster than the diffusion in liquid phase due to the small spaces between the molecules that hinder other molecule movement. Other factors that will effect the diffusion are temperature, density, concentration and other external factors. 1. INTRODUCTION This experiment has been designed for students experiment on the technique of determining diffusivity of the vapor of a volatile liquid based on the established Winkelmann’s method. In this method the volatile liquid is allowed to evaporate in a vertical glass tube over the top of which a stream of vapor-free gas is passed. A water bath is provided for maintaining a steady temperature so that there is no eddy current in the vertical tube and mass transfer takes place from the surface by molecular diffusion alone. The rate of evaporation can be followed by the rate of fall of the liquid surface. A traveling microscope is provided for determining, the liquid fall. With the knowledge of the concentration gradient, the diffusivity of  the vapor of the volatile liquid can then be calculated. 2.THEORY When a concentration gradient exists within a fluid consisting of two or more components, there is a tendency for each constituent to flow in such a direction as to reduce the concentration gradient. This is called mass transfer. Mass transfer takes place in either a gas phase or a liquid phase or in both simultaneously. When a liquid is allowed to evaporate in a narrow vertical tube and a steady temperature is maintained, mass transfer takes place from the surface by molecular diffusion alone. This is the technique developed by Winkelmann to determine the diffusivity of the vapor of a volatile liquid. By monitoring the evaporation rate, which is the rate of fall of liquid surface, and with the knowledge of concentration gradient, one may then calculate the diffusivity. The rate of mass transfer is given by: (1) where, D=diffusivity [m2/s] CA=saturation concentration at interface [kmol/m3] L=effective distance of mass transfer [m] CT=total molar concentration [kmol/m3] CBm=logarithmic mean value of CB [kmol/m3] Considering the evaporation of the liquid: (2) where, L=density of liquid [kg/m3] M=molecular weight [kg/kmol] Combining equations 1 and 2 we get, (3) Integrating and putting L = L0 at t = 0: (4) Values of L0 or L will not be measured accurately but accurate values of (L – L0) are available. Thus, rearranging equation 4: or,(5) A plot of t/ against will give a slope s: (6) Diffusivity D can then be calculated from equation 6: 3.START UP AND SHUT- DOWN PROCEDURES 3.1Start-up Procedure Prior to running an experiment, students are advised to perform the following start-up procedure: 1.Fill the water bath with clean (preferably filtered) water to approximately 30 mm from the top. 2.Plug the mains cable to the electrical supply. Be sure that the voltage of the supply is correct to suit the equipment. 3.Switch on the main power on the control panel. 4.Adjust the set-point value on the temperature controller to 50  °C. Warning!!Do not set the temperature controller beyond 70  °C. 5.Switch on the heater. Observe the water temperature heats up to 50  °C and remains constant. 6.Switch on the air pump. Adjust the needle valve so that a steady low velocity of air stream is detected at the end of the flexible tubing. 7.The equipment is now ready for student experiment. b)Priming Procedure for the Capillary Tube Before using the capillary tube in an experiment using acetone, students are advised to clean the inside of the tube. 1.Prepare a weak solution of detergent. 2.Use a Hirschmann pipette to fill the tube with the solution. Tapping the outside of the tube may be necessary if the solution is trapped and does not flow down. 3.Turn the tube upside-down and shake. Empty the tube. 4.Repeat steps 2 to 3 with acetone. 5. The tube is now ready for student experiment. c)Shut-down Procedure After the completion of an experiment, students are advised to shut down the equipment as follows: 1.Switch off the heater and air pump. 2.Adjust the set-point value of the temperature controller to approximately 5 degree below the room temperature. 3.Allow the water to cool down until it is safe to touch. Open the drain valve and empty the water tank. 4.Detach the flexible tubing and clean the capillary tube for next use. (Refer to priming procedure) 5.Switch off the main power. Unplug the main cable if the equipment will not be used for a long period. 4.EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES 1. Perform the start-up procedure as outlined in section 3. 2.Initially switch off the air pump. 3.Partially fill the capillary tube with acetone to a depth of about 35 mm. 4.Carefully insert the capillary tube through the fitting on top of the water bath cover. Do not over-tighten the fitting. 5.Observe the initial level of acetone through the microscope. Record the level in the table. 6.Connects the flexible tubing from the air pump line to one end of the capillary tube. Switch on the air pump. 7.After 10 minutes, switch off the air pump. Disconnect the flexible tubing and detach the capillary tube from the fitting. Observe and record the level of the acetone. 8. Repeat steps 5 to 6 at 10 minutes intervals. 9. Record the time, acetone level and liquid fall in the table below. 5.0RESULT Time, t (ks) Level of Acetone, L (mm) Liquid Fall (L – L0) (mm) t/(L – L0) (ks/mm) 6.0TUTORIALS 6.1 Plot t/ against. Determine gas diffusivity, D from the obtained slope, s. Attached all of your calculation at the appendix in the experiment report. 6.2 Compare the experimental value with the theoretical value that can be predicted from empirical equations (e.g. modified Maxwell’s equation by Gilliland). 6.3 Discuss the factors that effect the diffusion of acetone from the graph that have been plotted. 6.4 Base on objective of the experiment and the theory in gas diffusion makes a conclusion from your finding. 7.0 SAFETY AND MAINTENANCE General Safety Procedure 1.Always read and understand the manual properly before attempting to operate the equipment. 2.Always wear proper attire during laboratory session. It is highly recommended that eye protection and gloves are used. 3.Be careful when handling hazardous material. Always refer to the material safety data sheet. Avoid inhaling in great amount any hazardous material. 4.Avoid any spillage onto electrical components to prevent electrical shock. 5.Avoid touching hot surfaces (e.g. heater) to prevent skin burn. 6.Always conduct experiment in a properly ventilated room. General Maintenance Procedure 1.Do not operate the equipment if any of the components is found to be faulty. Consult the instructor for assistance. 2.Disconnect the equipment from electrical supply when not in use. 3.Drain the water from the water bath. 4.Clean the water bath thoroughly after use. Values for Calculation: 1. Ï  L = 760.0 kg/m3 2. M = 58.08 kg/kmol 3. Partial pressure P* = 0.8062 atm 4. where for acetone, CB1=0.0377 kmol/m3 CB2=0.00731 kmol/m3 CA=0.0304 kmol/m3 CT=0.0377kmol/m3

Exploring Deborah Tannen’s “Sex, Lies, and Conversation

Miscommunications Deborah Tannen’s â€Å"Sex, Lies, and Conversation† is a brief look at how men and women communicate with one another and the cross-culture differences between their individual styles and needs for conversation. Women often say that men do not listen or do not want to talk. Tannen gives reasons why women tend to believe that men are not listening, and shows that just because men have a different approach to communicating does not mean they are not listening to what women are saying.She uses several different examples to back up her statements including early childhood differences in communication between girls and boys, the body language men use and how women tend to interpret it, and how women tend to receive information while communicating. Men and women have very different expectations when it comes to communicating with one another. The way women converse varies greatly from the way men tend to converse. Even young girls and boys have very differen t ways of communicating with one another.Young children tend to play with other children of the same gender, and the boys and girls tend to have completely different social interactions with one another. Tannen states that â€Å"these systematic differences in childhood socialization make talk between women and men like cross-cultural communication, heir to all the attraction and pitfalls of that enticing but difficult enterprise (51). † We see in women and in young girls, talk creates intimacy and intimacy creates friendships, but men and boys tend to bond more on doing things with one another rather than talking to each other.Even the stance men take when talking varies from a woman’s. Women tend to think men are not listening to them based on the position men take when carrying on a conversation. Most women, when talking, tend to look one another in the eye. Men on the other hand tend to look around the room, occasionally catching a glance at the person they are con versing with. Women also tend to stay on one topic for longer periods of time than men. Women are also active listeners and tend to â€Å"make more listener-noise, such as ‘mhm,’ uhuh,’ and ‘yeah,’ to show ‘I’m with you’ (53). Men tend to be more silent listeners. All these misinterpretations of communication tend to drive a wedge between men and women. A big reason communication fails between men and women is a lack of understanding the different ways in which men and women communicate. When women expect the person they are communicating with to face them directly, make listener-noises, and stay on topic, it is easy to see how they view men’s unfocused attention, silent listening, and scattered topics as men not listening to what they are saying. These differences begin to clarify why women and men have such different expectations about communication in marriage (54). † Women use talk as a form a gossip, where men a re usually more antagonistic in conversation. Women tend to be offended by the oppositional form of communication, and men find the random babblings of a woman to be useless and unimportant. Understanding these differences as cross-cultural rather than individual can help forge solutions to these problems without placing blame on the individual. Communication between men and women is certainly cross-cultural.Some examples of this theory are early childhood differences in communication between girls and boys, the body language men use and how women tend to interpret it, and how women tend to receive information while communicating. The differences between men and women should not be judged but rather accepted and respected. If they can do that, improvement in our communication will surely follow. Men and women will always communicate differently, but at least if they understand the differences they can move forward. ? Work Cited Tannen, Deborah. â€Å"Sex, Lies, and Conversation. â €  The Norton Mix. Ed. Sieg, Judy. New York: W. W. Norton, 2012. Print.

Discussion wk5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Discussion wk5 - Essay Example Binge eating disorder is characterized by eating a lot of food at once. Primary health problems include obesity, high cholesterol levels, gastrointestinal complications, osteoarthritis, and sleep apnea among others. Eating disorders may lead to many health problems. For instance, Night eating syndrome may cause sleep apnea, abdominal distention, anemia, preeclampsia, and other obstetric complications. Compulsive overeating disorder may lead to obesity, high cholesterol levels, gastrointestinal complications, and osteoarthritis, among others. Bulimia nervosa may cause hypokalemia, boerhaave syndrome, gastro paresis, dehydration among others. Undeniably, obesity has many health complications. However, measures to control obesity are sometimes predisposing factors to more problems. Although I was quite familiar with some of the health complications associated with obesity, I had not realized that treatments for obesity could present worse complications. For instance, I have learned that homeopathic weight loss remedy by use of products containing the hormone (Human chorionic gonadotropin) HCG can cause such serious health effects. It is therefore important to control obesity using appropriate methods (Hellminch, 2011). It also caught my attention that sedentary behavior is indeed a contributing factor towards overweight, obesity, and cardiovascular complications. Although this field is receiving heightened attention from researchers, it is evident that the complications result from failure to expend extra calories. Although sedentary behavior is not classified as an eating disorder, it can cause complications such as obes ity that is often classified within the reams of eating disorders. Hellminch, N. (2011). Feds crack down on homeopathic weight loss remedy. Retrieved from

The Documentary 'Jamie Oliver's Great Escape' as a useful tool in Research Paper

The Documentary 'Jamie Oliver's Great Escape' as a useful tool in teaching Italian to ab initio third level students of Culinar - Research Paper Example Engaging Language Learners by Making the Learning Real It is well documented in cognitive science that learning does not take place until it is either shared or applied. Therefore, a major problem in language learning is its lack of reality. By engaging foreign language learners in real activities that use the target language the learning can be enhanced and accelerated. This study covers the use of Videos in the major interest field of third year culinary arts students to help them learn Italian. By using Educational Videos created for other educational aims, such as learning cooking techniques, the language learning becomes part of the engaging activity in their major interest and seems incidental. A study using Jamie Oliver’s Great Escapes to teach Ab Intio Italian to third year culinary students shows great potential for combining students’ major interest with Ab Intio language learning. It can both accelerate the language acquisition and enhance the major subject, especially with vocabulary, since the words presented are those the students already use quite frequently. The documentary is not entirely in Italian, but incorporates many useful words for cooking into the dialogue as techniques are demonstrated visually. Since any text that is focused upon one subject will be limited in vocabulary to that subject, the target set of terms becomes naturally smaller and easier to learn. Rather like scaffolding, this makes a connection with something in which the student has an intense interest creating a reality and allowing the students to actually to share and apply the language to their every day activities. It also has the effect of increasing interest in the language, thus motivating the students. Using Jamie Oliver’s Great Escapes Videos to Teach Ab Intio Italian There are 250 articles in the EBSCO database about Jamie Oliver, so he is definitely a popular television star chef. In looking at the series Jamie’s Great Escapes it is easy to understand why. His shows are not just about cooking, but include history and culture and authentic Italian language. By integrating visual images with written text, digital stories can be used to enhance and accelerate student comprehension (Burmark, 2004; Robin, 2008). Making content and connections relevant to students’ lives helps bring meaning and purpose to instruction in all content areas. Dewey (1912) challenged educators to meet students where they are, and these students are in the kitchen. By using a documentary series that focuses upon what most interest these students, the learners are engaged and motivated to learn what is important to the understanding of their craft. If we look carefully at these documentary episodes we see that they make the language very real. It is part of the cooking and the culture. Food is an intimate part of any culture, as is languages. Therefore it is no surprise that they go well together. They are central to who we are and u nderstanding this idea helps us understand why these videos work so well. The lives of these students center around food. That is the center of their culture as culinary arts students. However, in order to become really great chefs, they must understand the food they cook and the culture in which it developed. In the first episode, Jamie Oliver says, himself, that he went to Italy to learn about the food and culture, to get away from his hectic life and absorb the Italian

Sustainable Management Futures Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 3

Sustainable Management Futures - Essay Example The gases are trapped in the lower parts of the atmosphere thereby causing a blanket that traps the auto-radiated heat of the sun thereby causing the condition many call the global warming. The effects of global warming include a rise in global temperatures, rise in sea levels, and changes in climatic patterns (Senge, 2010). Others are heat waves, droughts, heavy rainfall in some regions, acidification of oceans and other effects related to shifting temperatures. Various studies have been conducted and some economists have been able to quantify the effects in monetary terms even though the results are disputable (Senge, 2010). Economic effects of Global Warming Among the various ways designed to calculate the effect of global warming is the effect of its products i.e. floods, rising sea levels etc. The first major effect is its effect on property and infrastructure. This is caused by factors such as floods, rising sea levels and storms (Senge, 2010, p. 16). These factors destroy road s, bridges, runways and other forms of property and infrastructure. The property destroyed may have cost substantial sums of money to set up therefore destroying it causes a loss to the investors who may be either individuals, companies or the government. The subsequent repairs to be done after the effects may also cost substantial amounts of resources. In the absence of the effects of global warming, the repairing costs may not have been incurred. The second economic effect is its effect on productivity. For instance, heavy rainfall may disrupt the daily activities of many people that generate money. They also disrupt planting of crops and may even destroy crops. This means that harvest may be affected in the process. In some areas, traffic snarl-ups are experienced in addition to power outages. These factors are important in economic development therefore disrupting them affects the economic adversely. Moreover, some people are affected by health conditions such as pneumonia that are caused by adverse climatic conditions. These diseases reduce the productivity of the people. The third type of costs incurred are coping costs. Coping costs arise from the measures that are implemented to curb some of the effects of global warming. Even though the long-term benefits may outweigh the initial cost, accounting may show significant costs in setting up the various policies. For instance, the government may be forced to strengthen infrastructure such as bridges and seawalls to curb the damage caused by floods and riding water levels. This requires heavy investments on the part of the government to make the improvements. The most expensive costs however remain the lives lost in the various disasters that occur. Medical bills are also incurred to treat people who are affected by the various catastrophes. From the above costs, it is evident that global warming is an issue that should be addressed keenly. The implementation of measures to curb the effects of global warmin g calls for the involvement of all stakeholders. Collective Measures to create a Solution The economic effects of climate change can be reduced if all stakeholders unite and merge resources to implement measures that may save this planet. The overall objective will be to reduce carbon emissions to safer levels (Senge, 2010, p.34). These may involve the participation of everyone from individual homes, businesses to governments. One of the measures is to forego

Using Your Manager Skills Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Using Your Manager Skills - Essay Example The elements that must be present in order for one to provide a valid claim under the law(s) specified under the Clean Water Act is that it is against the law for any person to release pollutants from a common source into the waters in the United States. Otherwise, it could only be possible with a permit of the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) provisions (Gross & Stelcen, 2012). 2. Regarding the Solid Waste Disposal Act, there are seven possible elements to meet to categorize in the violation acts. According to Cornel Law, the seven elements, which are under 42 U.S Code Chapter 82, Sub-Chapter III - HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT, sub-section 6924 presenting it briefly? It affirms that a person cannot in his or her knowhow treats, stores or disposes of any hazardous waste identified or listed in this sub-chapter. or knowingly leaves out material information or, and makes any false representation or statement in any application, manifest, label, permit, record, report or either any other document maintained, filed or used in the purposes of compliance with promulgated regulations by an administrator or, through a state especially for the authorized state program, under this subchapter. Additionally, if the person knowingly generates, stores, treats, transports, disposes off, exports, or else handles any waste that is hazardous or any used oil which is not identi fied or listed as a hazardous waste under the subchapter. The rest three elements concerning this crime are alike and similar by nature in that are inclusive of no transportation of hazardous materials, exporting, or storing the hazardous wastes. Having had a closer look at the facts that I have gathered, Mr. Howard, I find that we have not violated any of the terms under the Solid Waste Disposal Act. Here are the reasons for consideration: our company produces biodegradable packing materials that are

Criminal Cases in Healthcare Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Criminal Cases in Healthcare - Essay Example The identified case for review is available from The New York Times. Flegenheimer authored the article that was published on 25 May 2012. In the case, a patient called Martin was awarded 120 million dollars as compensation for brain damage caused by negligence among healthcare personnel. The identified liability was proportionately shared among five parties, Jacobi Medical Centre, Kings County Hospital Centre, Brookdale University Hospital and Medical Centre, healthcare personnel and the plaintiff (Flegenheimer, 2012, p. 1). Facts of the case identify mismanagement of the patient’s treatment at the different hospitals where she sought medical attention because of seizure. The allegedly improper care led to health complications including Martin’s brain damage and adverse skin complication (Flegenheimer, 2012). The scope of the case identifies professional malpractice – negligence – among the involved care personnel with a limited scope of contributory negligence from the plaintiff. Based on the essentials of a contract, as implied by a physician-patient relationship, healthcare personnel and a care organization, by vicarious liability, have legal obligations to handle a patient with uttermost care that is reasonable within the professional practice. Failure to observe such care identifies criminal and civil negligence (Witt, 2006). Martin’s position as a patient at the care facilities and her subsequent injuries satisfy the legal essentials of negligence that includes existence of a duty of care, breach of that duty and a subsequent loss due to the breach (Madden, 2003). Contributory negligence, however, partially shifts liability to the patient (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2007). The doctrine of negligence and contributory negligence implies liability on both the defendant and the plaintiff for failing to take due care in managing the plaintiff’s conditions. The care

Don't Ask Don't Tell Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Don't Ask Don't Tell - Research Paper Example This helps in tackling with its limitations and at the same time enhancing its advantages. Therefore, in the below sections, the various phases through which a public policy passes are looked at, thereby analyzing the involvement of various stakeholders and the effects of the policy on each. This will help establish the effectiveness of this approach in relation to this case. The â€Å"Don’t ask, Don’t tell† (DADT) policy of the US military is studied (Harrop 1). The policy The 'Don't ask, don't tell' policy came into effect in 1993 when President Clinton signed it into legislation. The main clause of the law states that "the presence in the armed forces of persons who demonstrate a propensity or intent to engage in homosexual acts would create an unacceptable risk to the high standards of morale, good order and discipline, and unit cohesion which are the essence of military capability." While this constitutes the ‘don't tell’ clause of the act, the ‘don't ask’ clause is not really a clause, rather an indication to commanders in the military that they must not initiate investigation into the sexual orientation of other personnel. However, there is an exception clause to this which states that if the Secretary of Defense deems that such inquiries are required for the implementation of the policy or if the person being investigated is done so as a result of his behavior, then such investigations can continue. Therefore, the policy heavily weighs in favor of cornering people from the LGBT community by restricting their powers of freedom and enquiry. However, the policy as it was introduced was a compromise between the President Clinton's election promise to lift the ban on homosexuals and the position of the military which maintained that homosexuality is incompatible with military service and that personnel who declare themselves to be homosexual must be discharged from military duty (Feder 1). Agenda Building The su bject of homosexuality has long been a subject of contention in the US military. However, there has not been much debate until the latter half of the 20th century. A majority of the cases were dealt using the legislations Articles of War (AW) and the Uniform Code of Military Justice. Both the laws did not tolerate homosexuality. In fact, sodomy was criminalized using through the AW. Homosexuality was seen as a psychological problem and hence people with the 'condition' were seen as sick. Expert psychologists and psychiatrists were used to build public opinion. The policy continued through the Second World War until the years of Ronald Regan during whose tenure the defense directive was issued stating that "homosexuality is incompatible with military service" ("History of 'don't ask, don't tell'" 2). However, this signified a change in the rationality of the policy. This was facilitated by a number of cases in federal courts which ruled against the policy implementation. For example, the Watkins v. United States Army case in which Sergeant Perry J. Watkins sued the Army after he had been discharged. Watkins case revealed that he had declared his orientation early on in his career and that he had made no attempt to hide it. Subsequently, after a number of years of court proceedings, the court found that the reasoning behind the provisions of the law was unsatisfactory. These developments forced the Army to

The Genesis of Faith Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Genesis of Faith - Essay Example Noah is depicted as a righteous and blameless man. He loved God wholeheartedly and practiced obedience. In his life, he had stable faith only in God. Out of faith, Noah built a large boat and did so by obeying God’s warning to him about mysterious floods that were to happen. Noah rebuked the whole world, and from the faith he became righteous. Abraham and Sarah: Abraham is depicted as an obedient and faithful servant of God. God commanded him to take with him his only beloved son Isaac and offer him as a burnt sacrifice. When he was about to sacrifice him, God intervened and provided a ram for the sacrifice. Out of faith, Sarah Abraham’s wife was able to have a child despite being barren and too old to conceive. However, she doubted faith in God just like any other human being but God fulfilled His promise of giving her a child. Sarah’s faith inspires every person who easily loses hope in life.Isaac is known as the miracle child of Abraham and Sarah and a man of faith. Faith reigned in Isaac’s entire life and he practiced it in his marriage with Rebekah. By faith, he promised his sons Jacob and Esau future blessings.Jacob was liar and manipulator but he knew God and he was renamed Israel. Out of faith, despite being old he blessed each of Joseph’s sons and worshiped while leaning on his staff. Leaning is of significance in this context because Jacob had spent his entire life limping after wrestling with God and being broken. He then gave his life to God who took control over it.

Comprhensive Examination - Psychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 12000 words

Comprhensive Examination - Psychology - Essay Example One of the most vital discoveries that must be made concerns the expectations that a couple has for their marriage and whether or not those expectations are realistic or based on suppositions that are not based on true examples of experience. It will also be relevant to the work to understand the way in which spouses create a perceptual filter in order to maintain a certain level of regard for one another. As the investigation into the concepts of romance is undertaken, creating an overview of the methods in which these concepts have been studied by other researchers will provide a framework within which to continue the research for The Anatomy of Romance In a discourse about adolescent relationships, Lucia F. O’Sullivan, Mariah Mantson Cheng, Kathleen Mullen Harris, and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn (2007) discuss the way in which adolescents connect to one another and form relationships. These experiences are the precursors to a future relationship and way in which these bonds will form. The study used a sub-sample of the participants from the Wave 2 of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health which consisted of a population of 8,438 respondents from the ages of 18-21. The use of logistic regression allowed a comparison of proportions as ordinary least square regression was used to create an analysis of mean sequential ranking that quantified each event. The data was created from answers from fifteen social, romantic, and sexual events which were relevant to a recent romantic relationship (p. 100). According to the study, in adolescent experiences, social and romantic experiences were more prevalent than sexual experiences. The relating of events were proportionately similar between males and females. However, ethnic diversity appears to show relevant differences in sexual experiences. Asian and Hispanic youths revealed a lower prevalence of sexual events than African American or Caucasian, while African American were the

Men continuous search for the avenue of the known and unknown reality Essay Example for Free

Men continuous search for the avenue of the known and unknown reality Essay The title itself gives a fascinating debate. The â€Å"Known Reality† can be broadly explained because humans already know what it is. It is already known by many people. If we give meaning to the â€Å"Unknown Reality† it is something we haven’t seen yet, went yet or even discovered. How will man find the access to that reality? Will we know if it is the unknown we’ve been searching for? I’ll give my opinion on the â€Å"Unknown†, maybe it is the reality that is already in front of us but we don’t see it because we neglect our understanding for it. Maybe we don’t open our minds and make that reality unknown. The avenue between the known and unknown is being open minded, trying to listen in both sides for us to understand both realities. If we keep tolerating ourselves in neglecting our capability to understand, then man will have an endless search for that avenue. Contradiction to that, if man has the determination and hunger to seek the truth, then they will find what they are looking for that both reality is there, and will realize that the avenue to it is the ability to listen and understand. If man continues to be blind, they will never reach that avenue and the â€Å"Unknown Reality† itself. Both realities are in front of us. But people only pay attention to only one side and brings an effect of ignorance to people. Many people have not yet realized the truth that is being laid down to them for being ignorant. I believe that what they are searching for is easily seen when we give understanding to it.

Red Mud and Pet Coke Physical Properties

Red Mud and Pet Coke Physical Properties 1.1 INTRODUCTION: India is witnessing construction of very interesting projects in all sectors of Infrastructure. Most of the structures are in structural concrete. In Present condition India is the second largest producer of cement in the world behind china. The construction practices are rapidly innovating throughout the world. The pace of infrastructure developments in India requires adoption of new technologies. The country consumed around 238 million metric tons of concrete in previous years. Indias concrete production is calculated to amount to just over 400 million metric tons by 2017. Concrete is the most widely used man-made construction material in the world. The popularity of concrete is due to the fact that from the common ingredients, the properties of concrete are tailored to meet the demand of any particular application. Now-a-days massive construction leads to scarcity of natural resources. It is a big problem emerging in field of construction because of their wide use shortage is happening. Due to this good sand is not available easily. Natural resources are also exhausting very rapidly because of its limited supply, the cost of Natural River sand has sky rocketed and its consistent supply cannot be guaranteed. So, now it is time to find some substitute to natural river sand. Hence, it is mandatory either to quest for another material or partly replace it by some other material. The expense of development moreover gets heightened further more leaving the waste materials to the environment straight forwardly can bring about natural issue. Henceforth the reuse of waste material has been emphasized. There is a growing awareness regarding extensive damage being caused to the environment due to accumulation of waste materials from power houses, industrial plants, colliery pits, demolition sites and it has become one of the major environmental and social issues. Waste materials coming out of industry nowadays is posing a great environmental problem in disposing them into the water, air and on the land. These waste materials can partly be used to produce materials suitable as fine aggregates or fillers in concrete. Use of waste products is not only a partial solution to environmental. Some wastes can significantly improve the properties, matrix and microstructure of concrete. The output of these waste materials in India is more than the production of cement and other construction materials used in all the civil engineering activities. So, the use of waste materials is not only to make the cement concrete less expensive, but to provide a blend of tailored properties of waste material s and OPC suitable for specified purpose. The waste materials which can be found in bulk are commonly known as blast furnace slag, fly ash, silica fumes, solid waste, plastic wastes, Red mud, Pet coke, etc. Partial replacement of Portland cement and sand with waste materials like blast furnace slag, fly ash, silica fumes, Red mud, pet coke, etc. will be a great help in reducing environmental pollution and also in reduction in manufacturing of cement and also minimize the use of natural materials that required for the construction activities. This research work outlines the optimum utilization of waste materials in some construction activities using as a green concept, which ultimately reduces the environmental pollution and suits the economy of project. This study involves Industrial wastes which have major production throughout the world and have negative effect on environment because of their chemical properties. Industrial wastes in this study are Red mud, Petroleum coke and Recron with accelerating admixture. Red mud is a waste material generated by the Bayer Process widely used to produce alumina from bauxite throughout the world. In India more than 20 million tons of red mud is generated annually. The Indian aluminium sector is characterized by large integrated players like Hindalco and National Aluminium Company (Nalco, Alumina plant at Damanjodi, Orissa). However, its high alkalinity is a potential pollution to threat water, land and air. While high costs are associated with the large area of land required for storage of the residue. Currently, it is dumped on land or in the oceans near alumina refineries which creates a great environmental pollution. Red mud is highly caustic due to which it is a good binder material and can be used in concrete technology for construction practices with partial replacement with cement. Among the uses utilization of red mud for building materials production such as cement, bricks, roofing tiles and glass-ceramic is in practice. Fig.1 Red mud Yard Petroleum coke (abbreviated as Pet coke) is a solid by product from oil refineries. It is a carbonaceous solid delivered from Coker units or other cracking processes. It has over 90% carbon. As it has a higher energy content, it emits 30% to 80% more CO2 than coal per unit of weight, it also emits sulphur and vanadium contents during combustion which can be problematic. The annual consumption of pet coke in India is around 14.44 million tons, according to the latest statistics of Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, Government of India. Pet coke can be used in concrete as a replacement of sand for acoustic application. The low density and high porosity properties of pet coke particles suggest that it may also have potential to improve the thermal insulating properties of concrete when added as fine aggregate. It can also be used as plastering, roof concreting, etc for light weight concreting. Fig. 2 Petroleum coke yard Recron is also called Polyester fiber. It acts as secondary reinforcement in concrete which increases resistance to impact and abrasion. It arrests cracks improves quality of construction in tanks, foundations, walls, roads, pre-cast products like pipes, blocks, tiles, manhole covers, asbestos sheets, cement based pre-cast products, etc. Role of Recron 3s is preventive in field of construction; it also controls reduction in water permeability, increase in flexibility, reduction in rebound loss, etc. Admixtures are the additive in concrete other than basic ingredients of concrete; they are added to the mix immediately before or during mixing. These admixtures are used primarily to reduce the cost of concrete construction, to achieve the strength, modify the properties of hardened concrete, to ensure good quality of concrete during transporting, placing, mixing curing and to overcome certain emergencies emerges during concrete operations. These can be added to concrete mix to produce high slump flowing concrete. High range super plasticizer was used in all the concrete mixes to achieve good workability. Super plasticizers are added to reduce the water requirement by 15 to 20% without affecting the workability leading to a high strength and dense concrete. To achieve the uniform workability, the admixture dosage was adjusted without changing the unit water content. By utilizing these wastes other researches has concluded that Red mud and pet coke are good replacement of cement and sand additives like Recron and Admixture helps in improving the properties of concrete. By using optimum amount of Industrial wastes in concrete we can reduce the construction cost and it is very much environmental friendly acheived made the previous researches are done on Red mud, pet coke, Recron and admixture separately by calculating physical tests like compressive strength and tensile strength test. 1.2 importance of study: In this study use of Red mud, Petroleum coke Recron with admixture has been used as a partial replacement of cement and sand in concrete. As Red mud and Petroleum coke both are the waste materials generated in large quantities from Industries they damaging environment from their chemical properties utilization of these materials are done. 1.3 Delimitation: In this study the use of Red mud and Petroleum coke (abbreviated as Pet coke) as a partial replacement of cement and sand is evaluated. Concrete used in the study is M25 with 2.4% of constant admixture in all the mix proportions used in study. 1.4 Objective of the study: To evaluate physical properties like Compressive strength, Tensile strength and Slump value of concrete prepared by partial replacement of Red mud and Pet coke in conjunction with Recron admixture. To find out an optimum percentage of replacement of Red mud and Pet coke along with addition of optimum percentage of Recron and fix % of admixture in M25 grade concrete. To estimate cost reduction by adopting Industrial wastes in designed mix concrete.

Enhancement of Photocatalytic Overall Water Splitting

Enhancement of Photocatalytic Overall Water Splitting Enhancement of photocatalytic overall water splitting on H1.9K0.3La0.5Bi0.1Ta2O7 by loading Pt, Rh(oxide) as co-catalysts Wei Chen, Hui Wang, Liqun Mao, Xiaoping Chen, Wenfeng Shangguan Abstract: Pt and Rh were loaded on protonated layered pervoskite H1.9K0.3La0.5Bi0.1Ta2O7 by an in suit photodeposition method. The Rh loading facilitates the O2 evolution and the H2/O2 is close to stoichiometric ratio (≈ 2). Yet the Pt loading is unable to improve the O2 evolution, although the photocatalytic activity for H2 evolution was enhanced apparently. The different effect of Pt and Rh on phtocatalytic activity for H2 or O2 evolution is due to the chemical states of Pt and Rh on HKLBT. The Pt particles loaded on HKLBT by photodepositon are Pt0, functioning as activity sites for H2 evolution. However, the Rh particles loaded on HKLBT are not only Rh0, but also RhO2, which provide the activity sites for O2 evolution by means of reducing the overpotential of O2 evolution. 1 Introduction Photocatalytic water splitting has attracted much attention in the past decades for producing clean and renewable hydrogen energy[1-3]. The photocatalytic water splitting contains both water reduction process(for H2) and water oxidation(for O2) process. Currently, the water oxidation process is consider as a key bottleneck in photocatalytic reaction[4]. The difficulty of water oxidation is due to the high overpotential of O2 evolution, which is attributed to charge trapping by surface states and slow oxygen evolution kinetics[5-7]. This is also explaining why some photocatalytic reactions in pure water only produce H2 without O2 (or H2/O2>2). Therefore, providing the activity sites for oxygen evolution to reduce the overprotential is a key task on overall water splitting. It has reported that co-catalysts such as NiO[8], RuO2[9], Mn2O3[10] loading on photocatalysts play an very important role on achieving overall water splitting by mean of providing the activity sites or inhibiting t he occurrence of backward reaction. However, almost all of metal oxides loading on photocatalytic materials need heat-treatment, which is harmful to some materials with less heat-resistant, such as protonated layered materials[11], metal (oxy)sulfide[12] and metal (oxy)nitride[13], etc. Recently, Kudo et al[14] loaded PbO2 from Pb2+ by a photodeposition method without heat-treatment, indicating that oxides also are loaded by oxidation of photogenerated holes, which will provide us with a feasible way to load metal oxides on photocataytic materials by a photodeposition method. In our previous study, we found that, although protonated layered perovskite H1.9K0.3La0.5Bi0.1Ta2O7 showed high activity for overall water splitting, the ratio of H2/O2 was stoichiometric[15,16]. In addition, H1.9K0.3La0.5Bi0.1Ta2O7 (HKLBT) possesses weak heat endurance and the heat-treatment would result the collapse of layer structure. Herein, we report Rh oxide loading on HKLBT by in suit photodepositon to provide the activity sites for Oxygen evolution and enhance photocatalytic water splitting. The chemical sates of Pt, Rh loading on HKLBT are investigated. The effects of co-catalysts on water splitting, especially for oxygen evolution, are also discussed. 2 Experimental 2.1 Preparation of materials The protonated layered perovskite oxides H1.9K0.3La0.5Bi0.1Ta2O7was prepared according to the method presented in our previous papers[15]. The detail processes are as follows: (1)The layered compound K0.5La0.5Bi2Ta2O9 were prepared by the polymerized complex method as follows. 60 mL methanol was used as a solvent to dissolve 0.006 mol of TaCl5. A large excess of citric acid (CA, 0.09 mol) was added into the methanol solution with continuous stirring. After achieving complete dissolution, 0.006 mol Bi(NO3)3 ·5H2O, 0.0015 mol La(NO3)3 ·nH2O, and 0.00825 mol K2CO3 were added to the solution. The mixture was then magnetically stirred for 1 h to afford a transparent solution and 0.36 mol of ethylene glycol (EG) was added to this solution. Then, the solution was heated at 130  ºC to promote esterification between EG and CA, yielding brown resin. The resin was then calcined at 350 oC for 1 h to form black solid mass. The resulting black powder was calcined on an Al2O3 plate at 650  ºC for 2 h in air, then calcined at 900  ºC for 6 h to obtain K0.5La0.5Bi2Ta2O9 (denoted as KLBT). (2) Proton exchange reaction: KLBT (0.8g) was performed in 250 mL of 3 M HCl solution for 72 h at room temperature with replacement of the acid every 24 h, and then the product was washed with deionized water and dried at 60  ºC for 3 h to remove the water on the surface of potocatalysts to obtain HKLBT. 2.2 Characterizations The UV-vis diffuse reflection spectra (DRS) were determined by a UV-vis spectrophotometer UV-2450 (Shimadzu, Japan) and were converted to absorbance by the Kulbelka-Munk method. The transmission electron microscopy (TEM) measurements were conducted using a JEM-2100F (Japan). The surface electronic state was analyzed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS, Shimadzu-Kratos, Axis Ultra DLD, Japan). All the binding energy (BE) values were calibrated by using the standard BE value of contaminant carbon (C1s =284.6 eV) as a reference. 2.3 In suit photodeposition and photocataltyic reaction The in suit photodeposition and photocatalytic reactions were carried out in a 350 ml top irradiation reaction Quartz cell at room temperature and a 250 W high-press Hg lamp was used as the light source. The catalyst powder (50 mg) was suspended in 60 ml aqueous solution containing a certain amount of (NH3)4PtCl2 and Rh(NO3)2 solution by magnetic stirring. At initial stage (about 2 h), Pt or Rh species were gradually deposited on the surface of HKLBT. After 2 h, generated gases were analyzed by an on-line GC with TCD detector (Huaai, GC9160, China, MS-5A, argon Argon as carrier gas). 3 Results and discussion 3.1 UV-vis DRS The UV-vis diffuse reflection spectra (DRS) of naked HKLBT and Pt (Rh)/HKLBT photocatalyts are shown in Fig 1. The absorption edges of HKLBT loading Pt or Rh have no notable change. However, after in suit photodeposition, the spectrum longer than 320nm exhibit new weak absorptions, which are ascribe to the adsorption of Pt or Rh(oxides) on the surface of HKLBT. The result indicates co-catalysts loaded on photocatalyst successfully as well. 3.2 TEM and XPS analysis The representative HRTEM images of Rh/HKLBT and Pt/HKLBT are shown in Fig 2. Fig 2a shows that the size of the Rh on HKLBT is about 5-10 nm. The lattice fringes of Rh and HKLBT can be observed clearly, suggesting the well-defined crystal structure. The lattice fringes with d spacing of ca. 0.251 nm and 0.184 nm can be assigned to the (101) lattice plane of RhO2 and (002) lattice plane of Rh0, respectively. The result is indicatinged that Rh particles photodeposited on HKLBT contain two different Rh species. The fig 2b shows the lattice fringe with d value of ca. 0.197 nm corresponds to the (200) lattice plane of Pt0, suggesting that Pt2+ was photo-reduced to Pt metal by photogenerated electrons instead of being oxideted by holes. The chemical states of Rh and Pt species on HKLBT photocatalysts were investigated by the XPS. Fig 3 shows the Rh 3d (a) and Pt 4f (b) binding energy spectra of Pt/HKLBT and Rh/HKLBT. As shown in Fig 3a, the Rh 3d5/2 XPS spectrum displays broad peaks and has been fitted to two overlapped peaks at ca 307.2 eV and 309.2 eV. The low binding energy at 307.2 eV is attributed to the Rh0[17], and the high binding energy at 309.2 eV is ascribed to RhO2[18], demonstrating further Rh photodeposited on HKLBT possesses two chemical states. The result is good agreement with the HRTEM result. The spectrum for the Pt7/2 (Fig 3b) exhibits two major peaks with binding energies of ca. 70.8 and 72.3 eV, which are assigned to Pt0 and Pt0 with adsorbed oxygen(Pt0-Oads) based on the previous report by kimi et al[19]. Photocatalytic water splitting activities of Pt/HKLB and Rh/HKLBT(à ¥Ã‚ ¤Ã‚ §Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ®) Table 1 lists the rates of H2 and O2 on HKLBT loaded with different amounts of Pt-cocatalyst and Rh-catalyst by photodepositon method. As shown in table1, the photocataytic activity of HKLBT was improved by Pt or Rh loading. The highest hydrogen evolution rate was obtained when the amount of cocatalytsts was 0.3wt%, which reached the 2.0 times (Pt) and 1.2 times(Rh) of naked photocatalyst, indicating cocatalysts provide catalytic active sites for water splitting. Excess loading of cocatalysts caused a decrease of photocatalytic activityà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã…’because the excessive Pt or Rh loaded on HKLBT would not only block the absorption to light photon but become the recombination centers of carriers as well[20]. Moreover, it is noteworthy that Pt loading enhanced remarkably the photocatalytic activity of H2 evolution instead of O2 evolution, and the H2/O2 is also deviating from the stoichiometric ratio. Instead, the photocataytic O2 production is considerably promoted by Rh loading and the ratio of H2 to O2 is close to 2, when the amount of Rh loading is 0.3 wt%. If photocatalytic reaction occurred, the photocatalytic materials not only need to meet requirement of energy, but also have enough activity sites for H2 and O2 evolution. Generally, during an overall water splitting reaction, active sites of O2 evolution are more important than that of hydrogen evolution, due to high overpotential of O2 evolution of photocatalyst[4]. It has been reported, some metal oxides cocatalysts, such as RuO2, IrO2, are good candidates as cocatalysts for enhancing O2 evolution by reducing the overpotential of O2 evolution[9,21]. Valdà ©s er al[22]also reported that the overpotentials of O2 evolution on RuO2, IrO2 and RhO2 were relative low (2 evolution from the surface of the photocatalysts. In our study, Pt0 particles photocdeposited on HKLBT only function as activity sites for H2 evolution, while the activity sites for O2 evolution are insufficiency as well. In contrast, Rh species loaded on HKLBT was not only reduced by electrons to Rh0, but oxidated by ho les to RhO2, which is benefit to O2 evolution. To further demonstrate the effect of RhO2 on O2 evolution, the photocatalytic O2 evolution of HKLBT, Pt/HKLBT and Rh/HKLBT in FeCl3 aqueous solution was carried out(Fig 4). As shown in Fig4, It can be clearly observed that the photocatalytic O2 evolution of Rh/HKLBT is higher than that of both Pt/HKLBT and naked HKLBT, indicting that RhO2 functions as an O2 evolution promoter indeed[23]. Conclusion The Rh oxide (RhO2) was loaded on HKBT by in suit photodeposition method without heat-treatment. Compared to Pt, the Rh oxide on the surface of the HKLBT is able to enhance the photocatalytic O2 evolution, and the ratio of H2 to O2 is stoichiometric ratio (H2/O2=2). The enhancement of O2 is due to the decrease of overpotential of O2 evolution by means of RhO2. The present work is also providing a possibility without heat-treatment to load metal oxides on photocatalyst with low heat stability for overall water splitting. Acknowledgements This work was supported by the National High Technology Research and Development Program of China (2012AA051501), the National Key Basic Research and Development Program (2009CB220000)à ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã…’the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51072116) and the International Cooperation Project of Shanghai Municipal Science and Technology Commission (12160705700). Reference [1] A Kudo , Y Miseki. Chemical Society Reviews 38 (2009) 253-278 [2] X Chen, S Shen, L Guo, S Mao, Chemical review 110 (2010) 6503-6570 [3] K Maeda, Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology C: Photochemistry Reviews 12 (2011) 237-268 [4] M Kanan, D Nocera, Science 321 (2008) 1072-1075 [5] Z Fang, D Dixon, Journal of Physical Chemistry C 117( 2013) 3539-3555 [6] A Vojvodic, J Nà ¸rskov, Science 334 (2011) 1355-1356 [7] Y Li, Z Liu, L Liu, W Gao, Journal of American Chemical Society 132 (2010) 13008-13015 [8] T Townsend, N Browning, F Osterloh. ACS NANO 6 (2012) 7420-7426 [9] LM Martà ­nez, R Gà ³mez, V Cuchillo, J Ramà ­rez, A Cruz-Là ³pez, FJ Alejandre-Sandoval, Catalysis Communications 12 (2010) 268-272 [10] K Maeda, A Xiong, T Yoshinaga, T Ikeda, N Sakamoto, T Hisatomi, M Takashima, D Lu, M Kanehara, T Setoyama, T Teranishi, K Domen, Angewandte International Edition Chemie 49 (2010) 4096-4099 [11] Y Tsunoda, M Shirata, W Sugimoto, Z Liu, O Terasaki, K Kuroda, Y Sugahara, Inorganic Chemistry 40 (2001) 5768-5771 [12] X Chen, W Chen, P Lin, Y Yang, H Gao, J Yuan, W Shangguan. Catalysis Communications 36 (2013) 104-108 [13] A Kasahara, K Nukumizu, G Hitoki, T Takata, J Kondo, M Hara, H Kobayshi, K Domen, Journal of Physical Chemistry A, 106 (2002) 6750-6753 [14] Y Miseki, H Kato, A Kudo, Energy Environmental Science 2 (2009) 306-314 [15] W Chen, C Li, H Gao, J Yuan, W Shangguan, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 37 (2012) 12846-12851 [16] W Chen, H Gao, Y Yang, P Lin, J Yuan, W Shangguan, J Su, S Zhou, Acta Physico-Chimica Sinica 28 (2012) 2911-2916 [17] C Yu, K Yang, W Zhou, Q Fan, L Wei, J Yu, Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids 74 (2013) 1714-1720 [18] Z Weng-Sieh, R Gronsky, A Bell, Journal of Catalysis 170 (1997) 62-74 [19] K Kim, N Winograd, R Davis, Journal of the American Chemical society 17 (1971) 6278-6279 [20] X Zong, J Han, G Ma, H Yan, G Wu, C Li, Journal of Physical Chemistry C 115 (2011) 12202-12208 [21] E Sabio, R Chamousis, N Browning, F Osterloh. Journal of Physical Chemistry C 116 (2012) 3161-3170 [22] à  Valdà ©s, J Brillet, M Grà ¤tzel, H Gudmundsdà ³ttir, H Hansen, H Jà ³nsson, P Klà ¼pfel, G Kroes, F Formal, I Man, R Martins, J Nà ¸rskov, J Rossmeisl, K Sivula, A Vojvodic, M Zà ¤ch, Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 14 (2012) 49-70 [23] A Iwase, H Kato, A Kudo, Applied Catalyisi B: Environmental 136-137 (2013) 89-93 Fig 1 UV-vis diffuse reflectance spectra of naked HKLBT, Pt/HKLBT and Rh/HKLBT Fig 2 TEM images of Rh/HKLBT (a) and Pt/HKLBT (b) Fig 3 XPS spectra for Rh 3d and Pt 4f of 0.3wt%Rh/HKLBT and 0.2wt%Pt/HKLBT Table 1 Photocatalytic overall water splitting on Pt/HKLBT and Rh/HKLBT Co-catalyst Loading content(wt%) Gas evolution (ÃŽ ¼mol ·h-1)a H2 O2 H2/O2 ratio none 122.8 33.7 3.6 Pt 0.1 163.40 51.9 3.2 Pt 0.3 242.7 72.5 3.3 Pt 0.5 210.8 72.9 2.9 Rh 0.1 133.5 39.0 3.4 Rh 0.3 146.1 67.9 2.1 Rh 0.5 65.3 31.2 2.1 Photocatlaytic reaction conditions: 50 mg catalyst, 250 W high pressure Hg lamp (ÃŽ »>200 nm), 60 ml pure water a Average rate of H2 and O2 in 4 h Fig 5 Photocatalytic O2 evolution from FeCl3 aqueous solution over naked HKLBT, Pt/HKLBT and Rh/HKLBT (30 mg catalytst, 250 W high pressure Hg lamp, 60 ml 0.05 mol/L FeCl3 )

William Harrison :: essays research papers fc

William Henry Harrison William Harrison was our 9th president. He had many accomplishments before he was president. He gave the longest inaugural speech. In 1809 William Harrison negotiated the Treaty of Fort Wayne. The treaty was an agreement between the United States and many Native American tribes. In 1811 Harrison led soldiers in the battle of Tippecanoe against a Shawnee Tribe. The Americans won the battle and he was a hero after the Battle of Tippecanoe. He was also in charge of the committee on military affairs. In 1816 he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. In 1819 he was elected to the Ohio State Senate. In 1825 he was elected to the U.S. Senate. He then was named minister of a South American country called Columbia. Later he became governor of Indian Lands. In 1836 he lost the election for president to Martin Van Buren. Then he won the next election in 1840.William Harrison had a lot of accomplishment before he was president. William Harrison was born in Virginia. He had to over come some obstacles in his life. One was he grew up during the American Revolution. He and His father disagreed about the job Harrison would have. His father wanted him to be a doctor but when he died Harrison stopped studying medicine and joined the army. He also fought in a lot of difficult battles against the British and the Native Americans. Six out of ten of William Harrison’s children died at an early age. He overcame all of these obstacles. William Harrison only was in office for one month. This was because he caught pneumonia and died.

Stereotypical Images of Native Americans Essay -- American America His

Stereotypical Images of Native Americans The encounter of Christopher Columbus with the indigenous people of the Americas and the Caribbean would ultimately set in motion the destruction of Native American life and culture as it had existed for thousands of years. Images and stereotypes of the Native Americans were indelibly etched into the minds of the Europeans and we struggle today to eradicate these harmful portrayals. When Columbus arrived in the Caribbean in 1492, he was greeted by the natives of what is currently Haiti and the Dominican Republic, on the island of Hispaniola. These people were the Taino Indians, who belong to the general group Arawak, which primarily describes the common language shared by the native people from the area now known as Venezuela all the way up to modern-day Florida. Columbus was immediately struck by the peaceful, generous nature of the Taino. He wrote, "they are gentle and comely people. They are so naive and free with their possessions that no one who has not witnessed them would never believe it. When you ask for something they have, they never say no. To the contrary, they offer to share with anyone... They willingly traded everything they owned..." The Taino society was very highly organized, with a patriarchal hierarchy and distinguished by happiness and friendliness. There were 5 different kingdoms on the island of Hispaniola and each kingdom was led by a cacique. Polygamy was in practice and the caciques often had as many as 30 wives, although most men had only 2 or 3. The wife of a cacique enjoyed great status and honor, as did her children. The people of the kingdom paid a tax or tribute to their cacique in exchange for overseeing the village. There were other hierar... ...ine: I. Columbus meets the Taino/Arawak Indians A. Peaceful/ generous nature 1. highly organized society 2. little defense capabilities or the necessity for them B. Manner of living 1. dress 2. housing C. Genocide 1. cruel treatment 2. disease 3. disappearance of cultural heritage 4. population estimates II. European Impressions A. Strong, self-determined people 1. King Ferdinand's letter to the Taino B. Savages 1. Religious implications 2. Self-serving rationalization III. Native American Stereotypes A. Film B. Literature C. Children's Books 1. The Indian in the Cupboard 2. demeaning vocabulary, "vanishing Indian" concept IV. Contemporary Impressions A. "red" man - designation created by Linnaeus 1. tribal affiliations disregarded 2. assimilation in "white" society B. Discrimination in current society

Child Abuse for Human Sexuality Class Essay

This was a very sad documentary. It’s sad that a child ever goes through something like that. It’s sad that because of abuse from someone else, they feel they need to abuse others. It’s sad that they don’t know how to love or let others love them. I wish that things were different in this world. I know it happens a lot though. I’ve seen and heard about several cases like this and even met some of the children; because my aunt worked for Head Start (they work with CPS), and because a couple of my ex-boyfriends were in situations like this. One of their adopted parents was a foster parent to several children who came from abusive parents. Also I live three houses down from a family with quite a few foster children. I’ve also had a few friends that were abused when they were little and then adopted. One of these friends had to go through a lot of therapy and counseling for some of the emotional scaring. This helped, but would never make him forget what had happened to him. He was not a very trusting or loving person toward anyone, and could be very aggressive and abusive if provoked even by the smallest thing. Self-esteem is one of the most important things a child can have and get from their caregivers, and it is also a very hard thing to change from negative to positive. When parents are abusive the child almost definitely will have a negative self-esteem. This causes life long problems for any child. This world is a scary place and to think that some children are born into families where they can’t feel safe makes it a sad place too. I wish things were different, but since they aren’t we just have to hope that we can help as many people as possible and get children out of these situations as soon as possible.

Housing and Habitability Essay

Question 1 You argon an environmental wellness inspector asked investigate problems at a topical anesthetic anaesthetic rugged-income and unwell main flatcar complex. at that place is range-based tonality pare from the walls, and constitute emergence on the walls.Living in a room that has malarky-based key peeling from the walls and mold begeting on the walls has certain wellness complications. The two factors are considered to be the wrap up indoor line of reasoning pollutants and its effect fuel be seen after repeated icon or soon after exposure. Occupants of an apartment with much(prenominal) conditions are exposed to much(prenominal) attempts whether children or old people. Lead-based paint peeling from the walls has a number of health complications to low gear income family members especially children (Stewart, 2001). Excessive exposure to lead can cause damage to aflutter system and the brain fashioning it strong for the victim to pee-pee good health. other(prenominal) main health problems accept full(prenominal) blood pressure, headaches, and muscle pain, difficulties during pregnancy and digestive problems. harbor of lead-based paint from peeling kill the walls is a major challenge for low income earning family living in a poorly maintained apartment. The following measures can be taken to control lead paint health problems Cleaning up paint chips once they peel off. Washing childrens hands more frequently and items they conform to with such as toys. Planting commode to cover soil with high levels of lead Cleaning particolored surfaces weekly and wash the cleaning tools thoroughly. Keeping children from chewing painted surfacesMolds are other major health hazards as they are invisible organisms that grow on walls under suitable conditions such as light, weewee and air. Health problems associated with molds accommodate breathing problems, asthma, and irritation of skin, eyes, sneezing, nausea, headache and fatigue. Control of molds requires the application of simple measures such as opening the windows to let fresh air flow wrong the building (Strang, 2003). With exuberant sunlight and clean air, humidity inside the rooms is decreased hence eliminating harvest-festival of molds.Question 2 One of your goals is to cheer the health of swimmers at a local recreational consortium. Discuss two methods that have been apply to treat liquified pot water, ozonation and chlorination.The health of swimmers is usually at risk as the water is in more or less cases contaminated. There are two normally apply methods to treat locomote pool water such as ozonation and chlorination. any swimmer has high chances of contaminating fluent pool through sweat, urine, mucous, skin flaks or hair ointments. These contaminants can be do by through the use of ozonation which proves to be the just about beneficial and advanced method of treating move pool water (Ball, 2006). Ozonation works by injecting ozon e on the filter then coagulator is added. one time filtration is done centiliter harvest is added as a residual concentration.Once the centiliter mixes with ozone, the level of chlorine reduces reservation the process one of the vanquish treatment method. The ozone reduces large molecules into small molecules which are slow decomposed by the filter. Ozonation has a number of benefits which include increase in the quality of swimming water as the level of chlorine is reduced. Another benefit is oxidization of organic and inorganic matter without formation of by-products and unclutter away of chlorine scent which magnate have some health problems. Chlorination is another method utilize to treat swimming pool water whereby chlorine is used as a disinfectant.Routine chlorination is used to kill prejudicious microorganisms which act as health threat. Chlorine reacts with organics and produces nitrogen trichloride and chloramines which are dangerous chemicals. As disinfectant, chlorine prevents the ontogenesis of bacteria or algae making the swimming pool water safe. Ozonation is the best method of treating swimming pool water compared to chlorination. Ozone is used as a finish agent while chlorine is used as a disinfectant (Goldstein, Martin, 2002). This meat that there are no harmful by products produced through ozonation while chlorine produces dangerous chemicals which are harmful to swimmers.

Environmental Degration

One of the sight little terror the satellite subjects today, environsal humiliation is bound to take a crap kayoed breeding backbreaking for t come out of the closet ensemble the life molds, including us gentlemans gentlemans, preferably or later. Studies reveal that the deterioration of milieu is occurring at an alarming rate. In tiptop, the postgraduate Level brat exa exploit panel of the get together Nations has enlisted it as integrity of the go terrors for mercifules. This issue sh ars space with occupations like poverty, terrorism and cultivated war in the list, and this itself amply fairylikes the fact that we be purpose for a certain cataclysm. What is purlieual abjection?It is a subroutine wherein the intrinsic purlieu of the planet is degenerated to much(prenominal)(prenominal) an extent that the biodiversity and the general health of the planet is subjected to drastic decrement. In recognize words, this phenomenon mickleful be outlined as deterioration of the Earths congenital surroundings as a result of riotous exploitation of the obtainable re reference books these implicate piss, post, flora, fauna, dirty word and so on The life on the planet is interwoven to much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) an extent that a decrease in a particular portion triggers a domino effect on each(prenominal) the an separate(prenominal) attri howeveres subject on it.How is it Ca spendd? environmental adulteration offer be attri lone(prenominal) ifed to various human activities and many inseptillable processes, with the later having an insignifi domiciliatet shargon in the same. virtually of the resources on the planet ar compromising to dep altogetherowion, and the rate at which we be exploiting them take already brought high-pricedly of them to the brink of exhaustion. Exploitation of the fossil fires is the stove tobacco pipe showcase of this phenomenon. Large-scale e xploitation has depleted the fossil fuel reserves crosswise the realness, thus s guideding us with no option still to bring an alternate source of force.former(a) human activities which start been modify to this environmental issue overwhelm urbanization, over commonwealth, de forestation, taint, hunting, etc. What Does it consider Us? Its draw be fitting much(prenominal)(prenominal) than and more obvious in form of each those environmental issues considering the planet. The hazardous do in let out by the industries scarpers to contaminate the wet bodies in the vicinity, thus leaving the body of body of irrigate unfit for swallow.Similarly, glassho exercise gases, such as CFCs and carbon dioxide, let out in the atmosphere soak up a crushing effect on the environment, thus making the planet threatened to a range of occupations, including spherical alternate and climate channelize. On atomic number 53 hand, incessant untaught activities have re sulted in adulteration of foulness, dapple excessive deforestation to accumulate the growe world has resulted in abjection of stress and pissing on the separate(a) hand. humanity have seldom sacrificed their necessities, yet deep exploitation of resources to fulfill these necessities itself is taking a bell shape on the environment.How Can we Deal With it? At single point of clipping, the damage reaches a stage wherein the environment terminatefult attain the required chemical substance equilibrium on its own. In such a situation, we humans need to look in, and en accredited that the damage is curbed and balance is attained. Simple measures, such as preservation of electricity, call of alternative energy sources, avoiding the habituate of things that begrime the environment, filthiness conservation, etc. , tramp help in saving the environment from the threat of debasement. Environmentalists, the region over, be trying their best to hold on our environ ment, and we need to do our bit to make sure that they succeed.The need of the hour is to identify the world-beaters of environmental abasement, and pass by them adept by one. We need to understand the fact that we ar a part of the interwoven life system of rules on the planet, and any problems, like environmental humiliation and environmental befoulment, atomic number 18 bound to consider us at once or in enjoinly. Though the disaster is non evaluate to happen tomorrow or a hundred years from now, that doesnt inculpate it pass on never happen at all. That being said, the cargo is on us the nigh intelligent species on the planet, to make sure that such problems atomic number 18 unplowed at bay.The principal(prenominal) ca go fors of environmental debasement argon as follow 1 industrialization 2 boorish development 3 cosmos ripening 4 poverty 5 urbanization 6 Deforestation 7 transport development 8 market failure Ca expends of Environmental Degradation thit her is no doubt that man has flummoxd environmental degradation. The ca expends of environmental degeneration ar convoluted and should be address to, before it ca personas complete breakdown of the environment.Ads by Google BSc psychology Online Study In Nigeria UK Universities. Apply Online Now For family Study www. rdi. co. k/psychology These be the eld we keep hearing to the highest degree global warming, liquescent of the glaciers, rising of the ocean levels, etc. , all of which have been linked to environmental degradation. When the congenital carry of the environment is compromised upon it leads to breakdown of the biological diversity and harms the health of the environment. The process of environmental degradation underside either be cause by nature itself or it is man-made (which is a fact). If one has to comp ar the face of earth as it was hundreds of years ago to what it is today, we leave tummyvass that environment has severely been compromised upon.When spate look at environmental degradation, the intensity of the problem is non rattling unders in any pillowcased, but it could cause destruction of the human flight itself. The causes of this problem vary a lot and it means depletion of the native resources and fretfulnesss in the innate cycle of things on the face of earth. Root Causes of Environmental Degradation The best vitrine of environmental degradation behind be seen in earthly concern degradation. There ar climatic conditions amenable on with the human activities, which have brought about(predicate) the degradation.The effect peck be seen in the dehydrated, semi arid and alter sub humid shores. One of the cause is over grazing of come to. Along with that the green grapple has depleted severely in just about all parts of the orb. The forest cover has made panache for human settlement. This has resulted in the temperatures increasing with each personnel casualty day. Since the forest covers have depl eted, it has resulted in large-scale wear, which in turn, is responsible for loss of feeds from the territory. This has led the smirch to be saluteing barren and in more or less cases in accompaniment sterile.Since the forest cover has been lost, the winds now blow the aggrandizement poop from the take, which alike leads to degradation of the environment. contamination is eating absent into the environment. Here we atomic number 18 talking about send befoulment, where oto venomous substances have made their way into the air, which has ca apply the air to nonplus unhealthy. Air defilement is caused by a number of reasons. One of the most prominent cause is vehicle emissions. With each passing day, the number of vehicles be on the inception, which means increase in air defilement. The next cause is wrench of chemical flagellate from various factories.The pay off lotsmultiplication forms a spirit level in the atmosphere of the earth, which gain affects the environment. In environmental degradation we send packingnot forget the exploitation of fossil fuels. Since the time fossil fuels were discovered, they have been exploited. This has resulted in the fossil fuel reserves depleting all around the world, hence it has become essential to find alternate sources of energy. When the fossil fuels argon burn offt, they release toxins into the air, which make headway aggravate environmental degradation. The fundamental causes of environment going down way is over people.The shore up reserve that is for sale on earth is finite. However, the demands ar ever-increasing due to increasing people. There is except so much, that one can tangiblely extract from the earth. This has led to unspecificspread use of chemicals and new(prenominal) toxins to produce more fodder to feed the ever-increasing number of volume. This has promote caused depletion of the earth. With the use of chemicals the biological balance of earth has withal been destruct as the microorganisms have been killed. If one has to see the environmental degradation causes and make, one leave behind see that sin little(prenominal) ecosystems have been destroyed.The ecosystem is made up of all the musical accompaniment and non living elements. However, when any one of them is destroyed, it leads to the destruction of the undefiled ecosystem as the balance is lost. No doubt whole workss and animals form an important feature of the ecosystem, but the microorganisms along with piddle sources and soil cannot be forgotten either. Industrial waste is cognize to be hazardous to the environment. The waste can be in the form of unstable waste, which pollute the rivers and cause harm to the ecosystem present in the rivers.It can similarly be solid waste, which is not biodegradable and pollutes the environment and leads to its degradation. We have already spoken about the industrial waste emitted into the air. After reading about the causes of environmental decadence, we can say that if the human race has to survive on the face of this earth, it is important that blotto measures be taken up to arrest further deterioration of the environment. One allow have to go bad towards conserving air, piddle system and soil and try to restore balance in the ecosystem, which has been destroyed or is on the barrier of destruction.In separate words, one will have to extend towards restoring pictorial habitats and make sure no further harm is by means of to the environment. By Bhakti Satalkar Published 3/25/2011 * Environmental Degradation * How do mankinds Affect the Environment * Current Environmental Issues * come of Environmental Problems * Simple Ways to survive the Environment * How does Mining Affect the Environment * How to Save the Environment * Globalization and Its Impact on the Environment * What are Environmental Ethics?* Environmental Issues List * How to Save Our Environment * Sustainable Living Ideas Causes of Overpopulation * Why are Birds and Fish Dying Read more at Buzzle http//www. buzzle. com/ binds/causes-of-environmental-degradation. html Environmental degradation From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia Jump to navigation, search Eighty-plus years later on the forsaking of Wallaroo Mines (Kadina, South Australia), mosses remain the only phytology at some spots of the sites grounds Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment by means of and by dint of depletion of resources such as air, pee and soil the destruction of ecosystems and the extinction of wildlife.It is specify as any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. 1 Environmental degradation is one of the Ten Threats formally cautioned by the High Level Threat Panel of the United Nations. The United Nations International Strategy for cataclysm Reduction defines environmental degradation as The reduction of the substance of the environment to meet socia l and ecologic objectives, and needs. 2 Environmental degradation is of many causes.When natural habitats are destroyed or natural resources are depleted, environment is degraded. This article whitethorn be confuse or unclear to readers. Please help us clarify the article suggestions whitethorn be piece on the talk page. (May 2012) Environmental Change and Human Health, a special section of World Resources 1998-99 in this overcompensate describes how preventable illnesses and premature deaths are whitewash occurring in real large numbers. If vast improvements are made in human health, millions of people will be living longer, healthier lives than ever before.In these inadequateest regions of the world an estimated 11 million children, or about one in five, will not live to see their fifth birthday, primarily because of environment- related to diseases. Child mortality is large than the combined populations of Norway and Switzer toss off, and mostly due to malaria, acute r espiratory infections or diarrhea illnesses that are largely preventable. limit hide * 1 piddle deterioration * 1. 1 humor change and temperature * 1. 2 humor change and recklessness * 1. 3 Population offset* 1. 4 floriculture * 1. weewee focal point * 2 See besides * 3 References * 4 External links edit body of piddle deterioration One major component of environmental degradation is the depletion of the resource of bracing irrigate supply on Earth. Approximately only 2. 5% of all of the pissing on Earth is unclouded pee, with the rest being salt weewee. 69% of the fresh weewee is frozen in ice caps located on Antarctica and Greenland, so only 30% of the 2. 5% of fresh wet is forthcoming for consumption. 3 Fresh wet is an exceptionally important resource, since life on Earth is at last dependent on it. body of peeing transports nutrients and chemicals within the biosphere to all forms of life, sustains twain plants and animals, and molds the come out of the Earth with transportation and deposition of corporeals. 4 The legitimate top three uses of fresh pee account for 95% of its consumption approximately 85% is used for irrigation of farmland, golf courses, and parks, 6% is used for domestic purposes such as indoor bathing uses and outdoor garden and lawn use, and 4% is used for industrial purposes such as processing, washing, and cool in manufacturing centers. 5 It is estimated that one in three people over the entire globe are already facing wet on the spur of the momentages, almost one-fifth of the worlds population live in areas of sensual irrigate system scarcity, and almost one quarter of the worlds population live in a give country that privations the demand infrastructure to use water from available rivers and aquifers. piddle scarcity is an increasing problem due to many foreseen issues in the future, including population growth, join on urbanization, high standards of living, and climate change. 3 edit Climate change and temperature Climate change affects the Earths water emerge in a large number of ship canal. It is predicted that the mean global temperature will get hold in the coming years due to a number of forces change the climate, the amount of atmospheric CO2 will rise, and both(prenominal)(prenominal) of these will put to work water resources evaporation depends potently on temperature and moisture availability, which can at long last affect the amount of water available to replenish groundwater supplies.Transpiration from plants can be affected by a rise in atmospheric CO2, which can decrease their use of water, but can excessively raise their use of water from viable increases of leaf area. Temperature increase can decrease the length of the snow season in the winter and increase the intensity of snowmelt in heater seasons, pencil lead to peak flood of snowmelt earlier in the season, affecting soil moisture, flood and drought risks, and remembering capaciti es depending on the area. 6 Warmer winter temperatures cause a decrease in snowpack, which can result in diminished water resources during the summer.This is especially important at mid-latitudes and in mountain regions that depend on frosty overspill to replenish their river systems and groundwater supplies, making these areas progressively vulnerable to water shortages over time an increase in temperature will initially result in a rapid rise in water liquescent from glaciers in the summer, followed by a re negotiate in glaciers and a decrease in the melt and accordingly the water deliver every year as the size of these glaciers get slenderer and smaller. 3 caloric expansion of water and change magnitude melting of oceanic glaciers from an increase in temperature gives way to a rise in sea level, which can affect the fresh water supply of coastal areas as salutary as river mouths and deltas with higher table salt get pushed further inland, an intrusion of saltwater resu lts in an increase of salinity in reservoirs and aquifers. 5 lowland rise whitethorn as well consequently be caused by a depletion of groundwater,7 as climate change can affect the hydrologic cycle in a number of ways. Uneven distributions of change magnitude temperatures and change magnitude presumption around the globe results in water surpluses and deficits,6 but a global decrease in groundwater suggests a rise in sea level, even later meltwater and thermal expansion were accounted for,7 which can provide a positive feedback to the problems sea-level rise causes to fresh-water supply.A rise in air temperature results in a rise in water temperature, which is in like manner very significant in water degradation, as the water would become more susceptible to bacterial growth. An increase in water temperature can also affect ecosystems greatly because of a species sensitivity to temperature, and also by inducing changes in a body of waters self-purification system from change magnitude amounts of dissolved atomic number 8 in the water due to rises in temperature. 3 edit Climate change and precipitationA rise in global temperatures is also predicted to correlate with an increase in global precipitation, but because of change magnitude overflow, floods, increased place of soil eroding, and mass movement of land, a mitigate in water quality is probable, bandage water will carry more nutrients, it will also carry more contaminants. 3 While most of the attention about climate change is order towards global warming and greenhouse effect, some of the most severe make of climate change are likely to be from changes in precipitation, evapotranspiration, overspill, and soil moisture.It is in the main expected that, on average, global precipitation will increase, with some areas receiving increases and some decreases. Climate exemplars show that bit some regions should expect an increase in precipitation,6 such as in the tropics and higher latitudes, other areas are expected to see a decrease, such as in the subtropics this will ultimately cause a latitudinal pas seul in water distribution. 3 The areas receiving more precipitation are also expected to receive this increase during their winter and actually become drier during their summer,6 creating even more of a variation of precipitation distribution. Naturally, the distribution of precipitation across the planet is very uneven, causing constant variations in water availability in respective locations. Changes in precipitation affect the timing and magnitude of floods and droughts, prison-breaking runoff processes, and alter groundwater recharge rates.Vegetation patterns and growth rates will be directly affected by shifts in precipitation amount and distribution, which will in turn affect agriculture as healthy as natural ecosystems. Decreased precipitation will deprive areas of water, causing water tables to decline in quality and reservoirs and wetlands, rivers, and lak es to empty,6 and whitethornbe an increase in evaporation and evapotranspiration, depending on the accompanied rise in temperature. 5 Groundwater reserves will be depleted, and the remaining water has a greater luck of being of worthless quality from saline or contaminants on the land come near. 3 edit Population growth The available fresh water being affected by climate is also being stretched across an ever-increasing global population. It is estimated that almost a quarter of the global population is living in an area that is using more than 20% of their renewable water supply water use will rise with population season the water is also being worsen by decreases in streamflow and groundwater caused by climate change.Even though some areas whitethorn see an increase in freshwater supply from an uneven distribution of precipitation increase, an increased use of water supply is expected. 8 An increased population means increased withdrawals from the water supply for domestic , unsophisticated, and industrial uses, the largest of these being agriculture,9 believed to be the major non-climate driver of environmental change and water deterioration.The next 50 years will likely be the last dot of rapid rural expansion, but the larger and wealthier population over this time will demand more agriculture. 10 Population increase over the last cardinal decades, at least in the United States, has also been accompanied by a shift to an increase in urban areas from rural areas,11 which concentrates the demand for water into certain areas, and puts stress on the fresh water supply from industrial and human contaminants. 3 urbanization causes overcrowding and progressively un salubrious living conditions, especially in evolution countries, which in turn exposes an increasingly number of people to disease. About 79% of the worlds population is in developing countries, which lack access to healthful water and sewer systems, giving rises to disease and deaths fro m polluted water and increased numbers of disease-carrying insects. 12 edit AgricultureAgriculture is dependent on available soil moisture, which is directly affected by climate dynamics, with precipitation being the input in this system and various processes being the output, such as evapotranspiration, progress runoff, waste pipe, and percolation into groundwater. Changes in climate, especially the changes in precipitation and evapotranspiration predicted by climate models, will directly affect soil moisture, come out of the closet runoff, and groundwater recharge. In areas with change magnitude precipitation as predicted by the climate models, soil moisture may be substantially educed. 6 With this in mind, agriculture in most areas needs irrigation already, which depletes fresh water supplies both by the physical use of the water and the degradation agriculture causes to the water. Irrigation increases salt and nutrient content in areas that wouldnt normally be affected, and damages streams and rivers from damming and removal of water. Fertilizer enters both human and fund waste streams that eventually enter groundwater, season nitrogen, phosphorus, and other chemicals from fertilizer can acidify both soils and water.Certain countrified demands may increase more than others with an increasingly wealthier global population, and meat is one commodity expected to double global forage demand by 2050,10 which directly affects the global supply of fresh water. oxen need water to drink, more if the temperature is high and humidness is low, and more if the ware system the cow is in is extensive, since finding food takes more effort. Water is demand in processing of the meat, and also in the production of feed for the livestock.Manure can contaminate bodies of freshwater, and slaughterhouses, depending on how hearty they are managed, contribute waste such as blood, fat, hair, and other bodily contents to supplies of fresh water. 13 The off of water fro m coarse to urban and suburban use raises concerns about agricultural sustainability, rural socio economical decline, food security, an increased carbon footprint from imported food, and decreased foreign trade wind balance. 9 The depletion of fresh water, as use to more specific and populated areas, increases fresh water scarcity among the population and also makes populations susceptible to economic, social, and governmental conflict in a number of ways rising sea levels forces migration from coastal areas to other areas further inland, pushing populations closer together breaching borders and other geographic patterns, and agricultural surpluses and deficits from the availability of water induce trade problems and economies of certain areas. 8CLimate change is an important cause of involuntary migration and forced displacement14 edit Water management The issue of the depletion of fresh water can be met by increased efforts in water management. 4 While water management systems are often flexible, adaptation to new hydrologic conditions may be very costly. 6 Preventative approaches are necessary to avoid high costs of inefficiency and the need for replenishment of water supplies,4 and innovations to decrease boilersuit demand may be important in planning water sustainability. 9 Water supply systems, as they exist now, were ground on the assumptions of the current climate, and built to accommodate alert river flows and flood frequencies. Reservoirs are containd assortd on chivalric hydrologic records, and irrigation systems on historical temperature, water availability, and cast water requirements these may not be a reliable guide to the future. Re-examining engineering designs, operations, optimizations, and planning, as well as re-evaluating legal, technical, and economic approaches to manage water resources are very important for the future of water management in response to water degradation.Another approach is water privatization disrespect its economic and cultural effects, service quality and overall quality of the water can be more intimately bidled and distributed. Rationality and sustainability is appropriate, and requires limits to overexploitation and pollution, and efforts in conservation.Natural hazards are excluded as a cause, however human activities can indirectly affect phenomena such as floods and scrub fires. 8. This is considered to be an important topic of the 21st nose candy due to the implications land degradation has upon agronomic productivity, the environment, and its effects on food security. 3 It is estimated that up to 40% of the worlds agricultural land is seriously degrad Measuring drink down degradation is a broad term that can be applied differently across a wide range of scenarios. There are four main ways of looking at land degradation and its impact on the environment around it * A temporary or permanent decline in the productive capacity of the land.This can be seen by dint of a loss of biomass, a loss of actual productivity or in electric potential productivity, or a loss or change in vegetative cover and soil nutrients. A decline in the lands usefulness A loss or reduction in the lands capacity to provide resources for human livelihoods. This can be deliberate from a base line of past land use. * Loss of biodiversity A loss of range of species or ecosystem complexity as a decline in the environmental quality. * switch ecological risk increased vulnerability of the environment or people to destruction or crisis. This is measured finished and through a base line in the form of pre-existing risk of crisis or destruction. A problem with measuring land degradation is that what one group of people call degradation, others might study as a benefit or opportunity.For ensample, sinister rainfall could make a scientific group be worried about high erosion of the soil while farmers could view it as a well-grounded opportunity to plant crops. 5 edit Causes Ov ergrazing by livestock can lead to land degradation Land degradation is a global problem, largely related to agricultural use. The major causes holdcitation infallible * Land clearance, such as clearcutting and deforestation * Agricultural depletion of soil nutrients through poor farming practices * Livestock including overgrazing and overdrafting * Inappropriate irrigation6 and overdrafting * Urban sprawl and commercial development territorial dominion befoulment including * Vehicle off-roading * Quarrying of stone, sand, ore and minerals * Increase in stadium size due to economies of scale, reducing shelter for wildlife, as hedgerows and copses disappear * Exposure of naked soil after harvesting by sarcoid equipment * Monoculture, destabilizing the local ecosystem * cast aside of non-biodegradable trash, such as plastics edit Effects Soil erosion in a wheat field near Pullman, USA. The main outcome of land degradation is a substantial reduction in the productivity of the land.7 The major stresses on vulnerable land implicate * accelerate soil erosion by wind and water Soil acidification and the formation of acid sul component soil resulting in barren soil * Soil alkalinisation owing to irrigation with water restraining sodium bicarbonate leading to poor soil structure and curbd crop yields * Soil salination in irrigated land requiring soil salinity control to reclaim the land 8 * Soil waterlogging in irrigated land which calls for some form of subsurface land drainage to remediate the negative effects 8 * Destruction of soil structure including loss of thorough matter Overcutting of vegetation occurs when people cut forests, woodlands and shrublandsto obtain timber, fuelwood and other productsat a pace exceeding the rate of natural regrowth. This is frequent in semi-arid environments, where fuelwood shortages are often severe. Overgrazing is the grazing of natural pastures at stocking intensities above the livestock carrying capacity the resulti ng decrease in the vegetation cover is a leading cause of wind and water erosion. It is a significant factor in Afghanistan.Agricultural activities that can cause land degradation include shifting cultivation without adequate fallow periods, absence of soil conservation measures, fertilizer use, and a host of possible problems arising from incorrect planning or management of irrigation. They are a major factor in Sri Lanka and the dominant one in Bangladesh. The role of population factors in land degradation processes obviously occurs in the context of the fundamental causes. In the region, in fact, it is indeed one of the two along with land shortage, and land shortage itself ultimately is a consequence of continued population growth in the face of the finiteness of land resources. In the context of land shortage the growing population pressure, during 1980-1990, has led to decreases in the already small areas of agricultural land per person in six out of eight countries (14% for India and 22% for Pakistan).Population pressure also operates through other mechanisms. Improper agricultural practices, for instance, occur only under constraints such as the saturation of good lands under population pressure which leads settlers to cultivate too shallow or too steep soils, beach wagon fallow land before it has recovered its fertility, or attempt to obtain multiple crops by irrigating irreconcilable soils. High population density is not continuously related to land degradation. Rather, it is the practices of the human population that can cause a embellish to become degraded. Populations can be a benefit to the land and make it more productive than it is in its natural state.Land degradation is important factor of internal displacement in many African and Asian countries9 Severe land degradation affects a significant portion of the Earths arable lands, decreasing the wealth and economic development of nations. As the land resource base becomes less productive, food security is compromised and competition for dwindling resources increases, the seeds of famine and potential conflict are sewn. edit esthesia and resilience aesthesia and resilience are measures of the vulnerability of a beautify to degradation. These two factors combine to explain the degree of vulnerability. 5 Sensitivity is the degree to which a land system undergoes change due to natural forces, human intervention or a combination of both.Resilience is the ability of a landscape to absorb change, without significantly altering the relationship amid the relative importance and numbers of individuals and species that compose the community. 10 It also refers to the ability of the region to return to its original state after being changed in some way. The resilience of a landscape can be increased or decreased through human fundamental interaction based upon different methods of land-use management. Land that is degraded becomes less resilient than undegraded land, which ca n lead to even further degration through shocks to the landscape. edit Climate change Significant land degradation from seawater inundation, particularly in river deltas and on low-lying islands, is a potential hazard that was place in a 2007 IPCC report. citation needed As a result of sea-level rise from climate change, salinity levels can reach levels where agriculture becomes impossible in very low lying areas.Journal ofLand Degradation & DevelopmentVol 24 (6 Issues in 2013)Edited by Professor Artemi CerdPrint ISSN 1085-3278 Online ISSN 1099-145X * explanation Land Degradation & Development is an international ledger which seeks to promote rational study of the recognition, monitoring, control and rehabilitation of degradation in mundane environments. The journal focuses on * what land degradation is * what causes land degradation * the impacts of land degradation * the scale of land degradation * the history, current status or future trends of land degradation * avoidance, m itigation and control of land degradation * alterative actions to rehabilitate or restore degraded land * sustainable land management.Land degradation may be defined as the loss of utility or potential utility through the reduction of or damage to physical, social, cultural or economic features, and/or reduction of ecosystem diversity. There may be a single cause or a complex rumple of causes, some may be biogeophysical (&039natural&039), some socioeconomic (&039human&039) and it is quite possible that cause(s) will be indirect, perhaps cumulative and difficult to identify. A major challenge is to learn how interactions amongst development and environment can be recrudesce managed to increase prospects for ecologically and socially sustainable improvements to human well-being.Development means attempts to improve human well-being or environmental quality in rich and poor nations on a sustained basis (sustainable development). papers are invited on scientific, social, economic, political and historical aspects of terrestrial environmental degradation. Also welcome are analyses presenting forecasts of trends, case studies and discussion on management, planning and policy-making relating to the packaging of ecological sustainability and the counteraction of land degradation. In addition to original research papers, regional and thematic reviews, both invited and submitted, will be included, as will short communications, book reviews and exertions of remote sensing and computer techniques.The members of the chromatography column Board are drawn from a spatiotemporal range of disciplines and nationalities. Together with a strict officiation procedure this will ensure Land Degradation & Development maintains a high standard and presents material from a wide range of disciplines, from interdisciplinary study and with an international coverage. The subject matter will include the following topics ENVIRONMENTS Degradation of deserts, savannas, rangelands fore sts, woodlands, tundra mountain environments wetlands, floodlands farmland, irrigated land sand-dunes coastal zones, islands, urban, peri-urban environments. In polar, temperate, subtropical and tropical regions.PROCESSES 39Desertification&039, rangeland degradation soil degradation (compaction, loss of fertility, rivetd organic fertilizer matter, pollution, waterlogging, acidification, salinization, alkalinization, &039laterite&039 and hard-pan formation) erosion degradation of vegetation cover, &039deforestation&039 impoverishment of wildlife habitats, loss of species. CAUSES Climatic change sea-level variation drought storms earth processes (geomorphological, volcanicity, natural remove of soils) bushfires degradation as a consequence of industry, urban growth, agrochemicals, agricultural modernization, energy production/consumption, mining, warfare, refugees or migrants, breakdown of tralatitious landuse strategies, altered communications, legislative changes, demographic c hanges, administrative causes, institutional causes, social or economic causes. PERCEPTIONSPerception/recognition of degradation, attitudes toward degradation ethics and land degradation forefingers monitoring, surveillance appraisal of significance establishing past, present and future trends. IMPACTS Physical, biological, social, cultural and economic impacts (direct, indirect, cumulative) long-term and short-term impacts assessment of significance aesthetical impact of degradation. Water pollution From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia Jump to navigation, search Raw sewer and industrial waste in the New River as it passes from Mexicali to Calexico, California. Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e. g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater).Water pollution occurs when pollutants are enterd directly or indirectly into water bodies without adequate interposition to remove harmful compounds. Water pollution affects plants and organisms living in these bodies of water. In almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and populations, but also to the natural biological communities. * 1 Introduction * 2 Categories * 2. 1 agitate sources * 2. 2 Nonpoint sources * 3 Groundwater pollution * 4 Causes * 4. 1 Pathogens * 4. 2 Chemical and other contaminants * 4. 3 thermic pollution * 5 Transport and chemical reactions of water pollutants * 6 Measurement * 6. 1 Sampling * 6. 2 Physical scrutiny * 6. Chemical examination * 6. 4 Biological testing * 7 Control of pollution * 7. 1 Domestic sewer * 7. 2 Industrial effluent * 7. 3 Agricultural wastewater * 7. 4 turn site stormwater * 7. 5 Urban runoff (stormwater) * 8 See also * 9 References * 10 External links Introduction Millions depend on the polluted Ganges river Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing paygrade and revision of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells).It has been suggest ed that it is the leading global cause of deaths and diseases,12 and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily. 2 An estimated 700 million Indians have no access to a proper toilet, and 1,000 Indian children die of diarrheal sickness every day. 3 some 90% of Chinas cities suffer from some degree of water pollution,4 and nearly 500 million people lack access to safe drinking water. 5 In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in developing countries, developed countries continue to struggle with pollution problems as well. In the most recent national report on water quality in the United States, 45 per centum of assessed stream miles, 47 percent of assessed lake acres, and 32 percent of assessed bays and estuarine square miles were class as polluted. 6Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is afflicted by anthropogenic contaminants and either does not certify a human use, such as drinking water, and/or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its constituent biotic communities, such as seek. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in water quality and the ecological status of water. Categories Surface water and groundwater have often been studied and managed as separate resources, although they are interrelated. 7 Surface water seeps through the soil and becomes groundwater. Conversely, groundwater can also feed surface water sources. Sources of surface water pollution are mostly grouped into two categories based on their origin. range sourcesPoint source pollution Shipyard Rio de Janeiro. Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single, identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category include discharges from a sewerage manipulation plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. The U. S. Clean Water operation (CWA) defines point source for regulatory enforcement purp oses. 8 The CWA definition of point source was amended in 1987 to include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial stormwater, such as from construction sites. 9 Nonpoint sources Nonpoint source pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not go up from a single discrete source.NPS pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area. A common example is the leaching out of nitrogen compounds from fertilized agricultural lands. Nutrient runoff in stormwater from sheet flow over an agricultural field or a forest are also cited as examples of NPS pollution. Contaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and highways, called urban runoff, is sometimes included under the category of NPS pollution. However, this runoff is typically channeled into storm drain systems and carry through through pipes to local surface waters, and is a point source. Groundwater pollution See also Hydrogeology Interactions betwe en groundwater and surface water are complex.Consequently, groundwater pollution, sometimes referred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily classified as surface water pollution. 7 By its very nature, groundwater aquifers are susceptible to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water bodies, and the distinction of point vs. non-point source may be irrelevant. A spill or ongoing releases of chemical or radionuclide contaminants into soil (located away from a surface water body) may not create point source or non-point source pollution, but can contaminate the aquifer below, defined as a toxin plume. The movement of the plume, called a plume front, may be analyzed through a hydrological transport model or groundwater model.Analysis of groundwater contamination may focus on the soil characteristics and site geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, and the nature of the contaminants. Causes The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a w ide spectrum of chemicals, pathogens, and physical or sensory changes such as elevated temperature and discoloration. While many of the chemicals and substances that are regulated may be naturally occurring (calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, etc. ) the concentration is often the key in find out what is a natural component of water, and what is a contaminant. High concentrations of naturally occurring substances can have negative impacts on aquatic flora and fauna.Oxygen-depleting substances may be natural materials, such as plant matter (e. g. leaves and grass) as well as man-made chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic substances may cause turbidity (cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant growth, and clogs the gills of some fish species. 10 umpteen of the chemical substances are toxic. Pathogens can produce waterborne diseases in either human or animal hosts. 11 transformation of waters physical chemistry includes acidity (change in pH), galvanising conductivity, temperature, and eutrophication. Eutrophication is an increase in the concentration of chemical nutrients in an ecosystem to an extent that increases in the primary productivity of the ecosystem.Depending on the degree of eutrophication, subsequent negative environmental effects such as anoxia ( group O depletion) and severe reductions in water quality may occur, affecting fish and other animal populations. Pathogens A manhole cover unable to contain a sanitary sewer overflow. Coliform bacteria are a commonly used bacterial indicator of water pollution, although not an actual cause of disease. Other microorganisms sometimes prime in surface waters which have caused human health problems include * Burkholderia pseudomallei * Cryptosporidium parvum * Giardia lamblia * Salmonella * Novovirus and other viruses * Parasitic worms (helminths). 1213 High levels of pathogens may result from inadequately toughened sewage discharges. 14This can be caused by a sewage plant designed with les s than secondary treatment (more typical in less-developed countries). In developed countries, older cities with aging infrastructure may have leaky sewage collection systems (pipes, pumps, valves), which can cause sanitary sewer overflows. many cities also have combined sewers, which may discharge untreated sewage during rain storms. 15 Pathogen discharges may also be caused by poorly managed livestock operations. Chemical and other contaminants Muddy river polluted by sediment. Photo good manners of United States Geological Survey. Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances. Organic water pollutants include* Detergents Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking water, such as chloroform * Food processing waste, which can include oxygen-demanding substances, fats and grease * Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of organohalides and other chemical compounds * Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and f uel oil) and lubricants ( motor oil), and fuel combustion byproducts, from stormwater runoff16 * Tree and bush detritus from logging operations * Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as industrial solvents, from improper storage. * Chlorinated solvents, which are black non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs), may fall to the bottom of reservoirs, since they dont mix well with water and are denser. * Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs) * Trichloroethylene * Perchlorate * respective(a) chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products.A garbage collection boom in an urban-area stream in Auckland, New Zealand. Inorganic water pollutants include * Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially reciprocal ohm dioxide from power plants) * Ammonia from food processing waste * Chemical waste as industrial by-products * Fertilizers containing nutrientsnitrates and phosphateswhich are found in stormwater runoff from agriculture, as well as commercial and residential use16 * Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban stormwater runoff)1617 and acid mine drainage * choke (sediment) in runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices or land clearing sites. Macroscopic Pollution in Parks Milwaukee, WIMacroscopic pollutionlarge patent items polluting the watermay be termed floatables in an urban stormwater context, or marine debris when found on the open seas, and can include such items as * Trash or garbage (e. g. paper, plastic, or food waste) discarded by people on the ground, along with accidental or intentional dumping of rubbish, that are washed by rainfall into storm drains and eventually discharged into surface waters * Nurdles, small present waterborne plastic pellets * Shipwrecks, large derelict ships. caloric pollution chief(prenominal) article Thermal pollution Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in the temperature of a natural body of water caused by human influence.Thermal pollution, unlike chemical pollution, resul ts in a change in the physical properties of water. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. Elevated water temperatures decreases oxygen levels (which can kill fish) and affects ecosystem composition, such as invasion by new thermophilic species. Urban runoff may also elevate temperature in surface waters. Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very cold water from the base of reservoirs into hummer rivers. Transport and chemical reactions of water pollutants See also Marine pollution Most water pollutants are eventually carried by rivers into the oceans.In some areas of the world the influence can be traced hundred miles from the mouth by studies using hydrology transport models. Advanced computer models such as SWMM or the DSSAM Model have been used in many locations worldwide to examine the fate of pollutants in aquatic systems. Indicator filter nourishment species such as copepods have a lso been used to study pollutant fates in the New York Bight, for example. The highest toxin loads are not directly at the mouth of the Hudson River, but 100 kilometers south, since several days are required for incorporation into planktonic tissue. The Hudson discharge flows south along the coast due to coriolis force.Further south then are areas of oxygen depletion, caused by chemicals using up oxygen and by algae blooms, caused by excess nutrients from algal cell death and corruption. Fish and shellfish kills have been reported, because toxins climb the food chain after small fish consume copepods, then large fish eat smaller fish, etc. Each attendant step up the food chain causes a stepwise concentration of pollutants such as heavy metals (e. g. mercury) and persistent organic pollutants such as DDT. This is known as biomagnification, which is occasionally used interchangeably with bioaccumulation. A polluted river draining an abandoned copper mine on Anglesey Large gyres (vor texes) in the oceans trap aimless plastic debris.The North Pacific Gyre for example has collected the so-called Great Pacific refuse Patch that is now estimated at 100 times the size of Texas. Many of these long-lasting pieces wind up in the stomachs of marine birds and animals. This results in obstruction of digestive pathways which leads to reduced appetite or even starvation. Many chemicals undergo reactive decay or chemically change especially over long periods of time in groundwater reservoirs. A noteworthy class of such chemicals is the chlorinated hydrocarbons such as trichloroethylene (used in industrial metal degreasing and electronics manufacturing) and tetrachloroethylene used in the dry cleaning industry (note latest advances in liquid carbon dioxide in dry cleaning that avoids all use of chemicals).Both of these chemicals, which are carcinogens themselves, undergo partial decomposition reactions, leading to new hazardous chemicals (including dichloroethylene and vinyl chloride). Groundwater pollution is much more difficult to abate than surface pollution because groundwater can move great distances through unseen aquifers. Non-porous aquifers such as clays partially sublime water of bacteria by simple filtration (adsorption and absorption), dilution, and, in some cases, chemical reactions and biological activity however, in some cases, the pollutants merely transform to soil contaminants. Groundwater that moves through cracks and caverns is not filtered and can be transported as easily as surface water.In fact, this can be aggravated by the human tendency to use natural sinkholes as dumps in areas of Karst topography. There are a variety of secondary effects stemming not from the original pollutant, but a derivative condition. An example is silt-bearing surface runoff, which can inhibit the penetration of fair weather through the water column, hampering photosynthesis in aquatic plants. Water pollution may be analyzed through several broad cat egories of methods physical, chemical and biological. Most overwhelm collection of samples, followed by specialized uninflected tests. virtually methods may be conducted in situ, without sampling, such as temperature.Government agencies and research organizations have published standardized, validated uninflected test methods to facilitate the comparability of results from disparate testing events. 18 Sampling Sampling of water for physical or chemical testing can be done by several methods, depending on the accuracy needed and the characteristics of the contaminant. Many contamination events are sharply restrict in time, most commonly in tie-up with rain events. For this reason grab samples are often inadequate for fully quantifying contaminant levels. Scientists gathering this type of data often engagement auto-sampler devices that pump increments of water at either time or discharge intervals.Sampling for biological testing involves collection of plants and/or animals from the surface water body. Depending on the type of assessment, the organisms may be identified for biosurveys (population counts) and returned to the water body, or they may be dissected for bioassays to determine toxicity. Further information Water qualitySampling and Measurement Physical testing Common physical tests of water include temperature, solids concentrations (e. g. , check suspended solids (TSS)) and turbidity. Chemical testing See also water chemistry analysis and environmental chemistry Water samples may be examined using the principles of analytical chemistry. Many published test methods are available for both organic and inorganic compounds.Frequently used methods include pH, biochemical oxygen demand ( variety),19102 chemical oxygen demand (COD),19104 nutrients (nitrate and phosphorus compounds), metals (including copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and mercury), oil and grease, score petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), and chapicides. Biological testing Main article Bioindicat or Biological testing involves the use of plant, animal, and/or microbial indicators to monitor the health of an aquatic ecosystem. Control of pollution Domestic sewage Main article sewer treatment Deer Island Waste Water intervention Plant serving Boston, Massachusetts and vicinity. Domestic sewage is 99. 9 percent pure water, while the other 0. 1 percent are pollutants.Although found in low concentrations, these pollutants pose risk on a large scale. 20 In urban areas, domestic sewage is typically treated by centralized sewage treatment plants. In the U. S. , most of these plants are operated by local government agencies, frequently referred to as publically owned treatment works (POTW). Municipal treatment plants are designed to control conventional pollutants BOD and suspended solids. Well-designed and operated systems (i. e. , secondary treatment or better) can remove 90 percent or more of these pollutants. virtually plants have additional sub-systems to treat nutrients and pathogens. Most municipal plants are not designed to treat toxic pollutants found in industrial wastewater. 21Cities with sanitary sewer overflows or combined sewer overflows employ one or more engineering approaches to reduce discharges of untreated sewage, including * utilizing a green infrastructure approach to improve stormwater management capacity throughout the system, and reduce the hydraulic overloading of the treatment plant22 * repair and replacement of leaking and go bad equipment15 * increasing overall hydraulic capacity of the sewage collection system (often a very expensive option). A household or business not served by a municipal treatment plant may have an individual septic tank, which treats the wastewater on site and discharges into the soil.Alternatively, domestic wastewater may be sent to a nearby in camera owned treatment system (e. g. in a rural community). Some industrial facilities generate medium domestic sewage that can be treated by municipal faciliti es. Industries that generate wastewater with high concentrations of conventional pollutants (e. g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e. g. heavy metals, volatilizable organic compounds) or other nonconventional pollutants such as ammonia, need specialized treatment systems. Some of these facilities can install a pre-treatment system to remove the toxic components, and then send the partially treated wastewater to the municipal system.Industries generating large volumes of wastewater typically operate their own complete on-site treatment systems. Some industries have been successful at redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants, through a process called pollution prevention. Heated water generated by power plants or manufacturing plants may be controlled with * change ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling by evaporation, convection, and radiation * cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through evaporation and/or heat transfer * cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic and/or industrial heating purposes. 23 Agricultural wastewaterMain article Agricultural wastewater treatment Riparian buffer lining a creek in Iowa Nonpoint source controls situate (loose soil) washed off fields is the largest source of agricultural pollution in the United States. 10 Farmers may utilize erosion controls to reduce runoff flows and retain soil on their fields. Common techniques include contour plowing, crop mulching, crop rotation, planting perennial crops and installing riparian buffers. 2425pp. 4-954-96 Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) are typically applied to farmland as commercial fertilizer animal manure or nebulizering of municipal or industrial wastewater (effluent) or sludge.Nutrients may also enter runoff from crop residues, irrigation water, wildlife, and atmospheric deposition. 25p. 2-9 Farmers can develop and follow through nutrient management plans to reduce excess application of nutrients. 2425pp. 4-374-38 To minimize pesticide impacts, farmers may use Integrated pestis Management (IPM) techniques (which can include biological pest control) to maintain control over pests, reduce doctrine on chemical pesticides, and protect water quality. 26 Feedlot in the United States Point source wastewater treatment Farms with large livestock and poultry operations, such as factory farms, are called concentrated animal eating operations or feedlots in the US and are being subject to increasing government regulation. 2728 animal(prenominal) slurries are usually treated by containment in anaerobic lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle application to grassland.Constructed wetlands are sometimes used to facilitate treatment of animal wastes. Some animal slurries are treated by mix with straw and composted at high temperature to produce a bacteriologically sterile and friable manure for soil improvement. Construction site stormwater Silt fence instal led on a construction site. Sediment from construction sites is managed by induction of * erosion controls, such as mulching and hydroseeding, and * sediment controls, such as sediment basins and silt fences. 29 Discharge of toxic chemicals such as motor fuels and concrete laundry is prevented by use of * spill prevention and control plans, and specially designed containers (e. g. for concrete washout) and structures such as overflow controls and diversion berms. 30 Urban runoff (stormwater) Main article Urban runoff See also Green infrastructure Retention basin for positive urban runoff Effective control of urban runoff involves reducing the velocity and flow of stormwater, as well as reducing pollutant discharges. Local governments use a variety of stormwater management techniques to reduce the effects of urban runoff.These techniques, called best management practices (BMPs) in the U. S. , may focus on water quantity control, while others focus on improving water quality, and s ome perform both functions. 31 Pollution prevention practices include low-impact development techniques, installation of green roofs and improved chemical handling (e. g. management of motor fuels & oil, fertilizers and pesticides). 32 Runoff mitigation systems include infiltration basins, bioretention systems, constructed wetlands, retention basins and similar devices. 3334 Thermal pollution from runoff can be controlled by stormwater management facilities that absorb the runoff or direct it into groundwater, such as bioretention systems and infiltration basins. Retention basins tend to be less effective at reducing temperature, as the water may be heat by the sun before being discharged to a receiving stream. 31p. 5-58 *